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#Post#: 15--------------------------------------------------
Re: :OO
By: pekkaalaviiva Date: August 9, 2011, 8:01 am
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[s][left][font=arial]A cigarette (French: "small cigar", from
cigare + -ette) is a small roll of finely cut tobacco leaves
wrapped in a cylinder of thin paper for smoking. The cigarette
is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder; its smoke is
inhaled from the other end, which is held in or to the mouth and
in some cases a cigarette holder may be used as well. Most
modern manufactured cigarettes are filtered and include
reconstituted tobacco and other additives.[1]
The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco
cigarette but can apply to similar devices containing other
herbs, such as cloves or cannabis. A cigarette is distinguished
from a cigar by its smaller size, use of processed leaf, and
paper wrapping, which is normally white, though other colors are
occasionally available. Cigars are typically composed entirely
of whole-leaf tobacco.
Rates of cigarette smoking vary widely, and have changed
considerably over the course of history – since cigarettes were
first widely used in the mid-19th century. While rates of
smoking have over time leveled off or declined in the developed
world, they continue to rise in developing nations.[2][3]
Nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in tobacco and
therefore cigarettes, is believed to be psychologically
addictive, although it does not engender a physiological
dependency (e.g. discontinuation does not evoke somatic
withdrawal syndromes as do drugs such as alcohol or opioids).
Statistically each cigarette smoked shortens the user's lifespan
by 11 minutes.[4] About half of cigarette smokers die of
tobacco-related disease[5] and lose on average 14 years of
life.[6] Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to
cause birth defects, including mental and physical
disabilities.[7] Secondhand smoke from cigarettes has been shown
to be injurious to bystanders,[8][9][10][11] which has led to
legislation that has banned their smoking in many workplaces and
public areas. New research has shown that thirdhand smoke, which
are caused when tobacco traces are transmitted through a
secondhand smoker to a third person, increases the probability
of lung-related diseases. Cigarettes are the most frequent
source of fires in private homes, which has prompted the
European Union and the United States to ban cigarettes that are
not fire standard compliant by 2011.[12][13][/font][/left][/s]
#Post#: 16--------------------------------------------------
Re: :OO
By: persekarv Date: August 9, 2011, 8:01 am
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The earliest forms of cigarettes were largely indistinguishable
from their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes have been attested
in Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds
and smoking tubes. The Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked
tobacco and various psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and
frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and
temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most
common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico and Central
and South America until recent times.[14]
The South and Central American cigarette used various plant
wrappers; when it was brought back to Spain, maize wrappers were
introduced, and by the 17th century, fine paper. The resulting
product was called papelate and is documented in Goya's
paintings La Cometa, La Merienda en el Manzanares, and El juego
de la pelota a pala (18th century).[15]
By 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it
received the name cigarette; and in 1845, the French state
tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them.[15]
In the English-speaking world, the use of tobacco in cigarette
form became increasingly popular during and after the Crimean
War, when British soldiers began emulating their Ottoman Turkish
comrades and Russian enemies, who had begun rolling and smoking
tobacco in strips of old newspaper for lack of proper
cigar-rolling leaf.[15] This was helped by the development of
tobaccos that are suitable for cigarette use, and by the
development of the Egyptian cigarette export industry.
Francisco Goya's La Cometa, depicting a man smoking an early
quasi-cigarette.
Cigarettes may have been initially used in a manner similar to
pipes and cigars and not inhaled; for evidence, see the Lucky
Strike ad campaign asking consumers "Do You Inhale?" from the
30's. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic
inhaling may have become more agreeable. On the other hand,
Moltke noticed in the 1830s (cf. Unter dem Halbmond) that
Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the Turkish tobacco and
Latakia from their pipes[16] (which are both initially
sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties).
The widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is
largely a 20th century phenomenon – at the start of the century
the per capita annual consumption in the USA was 54 cigarettes
(with less than 0.5% of the population smoking more than 100
cigarettes per year), and consumption there peaked at 4,259 per
capita in 1965. At that time about 50% of men and 33% of women
smoked (defined as smoking more than 100 cigarettes per
year).[17] By 2000, consumption had fallen to 2,092 per capita,
corresponding to about 30% of men and 22% of women smoking more
than 100 cigarettes per year, and by 2006 per capita consumption
had declined to 1,691;[18] implying that about 21% of the
population smoked 100 cigarettes or more per year.
German Doctors were the first to identify the link between
smoking and lung cancer which led to the first anti-tobacco
movement in Nazi Germany.[19][20] During World War I and World
War II, cigarettes were rationed to soldiers. During the Vietnam
War, cigarettes were included with C-ration meals. It was only
in 1975 that the government quit putting cigarettes in military
rations. During the second half of the 20th century, the adverse
health effects of cigarettes started to become widely known and
text-only health warnings became commonplace on cigarette
packets. Warnings became prevalent but unpopular, mainly due to
the political influences held by tobacco growers. The United
States has not yet implemented graphical cigarette warning
labels, which are considered a more effective method to
communicate to the public the dangers of cigarette smoking.[21]
Canada, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Australia, Brazil, New
Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Romania, Singapore and
Turkey however, have both textual warnings and graphic visual
images displaying, among other things, the damaging effects
tobacco use has on the human body.
The cigarette has evolved much since its conception; for
example, the thin bands that travel transverse to the "axis of
smoking" (thus forming circles along the length of the
cigarette) are alternate sections of thin and thick paper to
facilitate effective burning when being drawn, and retard
burning when at rest. Synthetic particulate filters remove some
of the tar before it reaches the smoker.
[edit] Manufacturing
Diagram of a cigarette.
1. Filter made of 95% cellulose acetate.
2. Tipping paper to cover the filter.
3. Rolling paper to cover the tobacco.
4. Tobacco blend.
Modern commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple
objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, PVA glue to
bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a
cellulose acetate–based filter.[22] While the assembly of
cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the
creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco
blend, which may contain over 600 ingredients,[23] many of them
flavoring for the tobacco. A key ingredient that makes
cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted
tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as
the cigarette burns.[1]
[edit] Paper
Main article: Cigarette paper
The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to
allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that
control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the
produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming
the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilize the
mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette
as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two
rows of small laser-drilled air holes.[24]
According to Simon Chapman, a professor of public health at the
University of Sydney, the burning agents in cigarette paper are
responsible for fires and reducing them would be a simple and
effective means of dramatically reducing the ignition propensity
of cigarettes.[25] Since the 1980s, prominent cigarette
manufacturers such as Philip Morris and R.J. Reynolds developed
fire-safe cigarettes but did not market them.[citation needed]
The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the
application of different forms of micro crystalline cellulose to
the paper.[26] Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by
creating bands of different porosity to create "fire-safe"
cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed
which allows them to self-extinguish.[27] This fire-safe paper
is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the
paper slurry.[28]
New York was the first U.S. state to mandate that all cigarettes
manufactured or sold within the state comply with a fire safe
standard. Canada has passed a similar nation-wide mandate based
on the same standard. All U.S. states are gradually passing
fire-safe mandates.[29]
European Union wishes to ban in 2011 cigarettes that are not
fire-safe. According to a study made by European Union in 16
European countries, 11,000 fires were due to people carelessly
handling cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. This caused 520
deaths and 1600 people injured.[30]
[edit] Tobacco blend
The tobacco end of a cigarette
The process of blending gives the end product a consistent taste
from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country
that may change in flavor profile from year to year due to
different environmental conditions.[31]
Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed
mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of
tobacco processing by-products in the blend. Each cigarette's
tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured
brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves
are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling.
The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco
leaf "strips" produces several by-products such as leaf stems,
tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces ("small laminate").[31] To
improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these by-products
are processed separately into forms where they can then be
possibly added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent
or marked change in the cigarette's quality. The most common
tobacco by-products include:
* Blended leaf (BL) sheet: a thin, dry sheet cast from a
paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming,
finely milled burley-leaf stem, and pectin.[32]
* Reconstituted leaf (RL) sheet: a paper-like material made
from recycled tobacco fines, tobacco stems and "class tobacco",
which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 mesh in size
(~0.599 mm) that are collected at any stage of tobacco
processing.[33] RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals
in the tobacco by-products, processing the leftover tobacco
fibers from the extraction into a paper, and then reapplying the
extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a
fashion similar to what is done in paper sizing. At this stage
ammonium additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an
effective nicotine delivery system.[1]
* Expanded (ES) or improved stems (IS): ES are rolled,
flattened, and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being
soaked in water and rapidly heated. Improved stems follow the
same process but are simply steamed after shredding. Both
products are then dried. These two products look similar in
appearance but are different in taste.[31]
According to a decision on a lawsuit brought by the USA against
Philip Morris, and Philip Morris own documents, the only
difference between regular cigarettes and a "light" cigarette is
tiny holes placed on the paper that increase the air flow. This
increase in air flow increases the mutability of the smoke, i.e.
making so-called "light" cigarettes even more likely to cause
cancer and tumors than regular cigarettes. Philip Morris has
been banned from using the term "light" in the USA.[34]
A recipe-specified combination of brightleaf, burley-leaf and
oriental-leaf tobacco will be mixed with humectants such as
propylene glycol or glycerol, as well as flavouring products and
enhancers such as cocoa solids, licorice, tobacco extracts, and
various sugars, which are known collectively as "casings". The
leaf tobacco will then be shredded, along with a specified
amount of small laminate, expanded tobacco, BL, RL, ES and IS. A
perfume-like flavour/fragrance, called the "topping" or
"toppings", which is most often formulated by flavor companies,
will then be blended into the tobacco mixture to improve the
consistency in flavour and taste of the cigarettes associated
with a certain brand name.[31] As well, they replace lost
flavours due to the repeated wetting and drying used in
processing the tobacco. Finally the tobacco mixture will be
filled into cigarettes tubes and packaged.
In recent years, the manufacturers' pursuit of maximum profits
has led to the practice of using not just the leaves, but also
recycled tobacco offal[1] and the plant stem.[35] The stem is
first crushed and cut to resemble the leaf before being merged
or blended into the cut leaf.[36] According to data from the
World Health Organization, [37] the amount of tobacco per 1000
cigarettes fell from 2.28 pounds in 1960 to 0.91 pounds in 1999,
largely as a result of reconstituting tobacco, fluffing and
additives.
[edit] Additives
Chemicals are added by cigarette manufactures for organoleptic
purposes.[38] 599 additives have been approved by the Dept. of
Health and Human Services in April 1994 for use in the
manufacture of cigarettes. None of these additives need to be
listed as ingredients on the cigarette pack. The list of legal
cigarette additives was created by the five major American
cigarette companies. All of the ingredients are also approved as
additives for foods,[39] but not all of them have been tested
for what they become in smoke during burning.[citation needed]
A chemical called ammonia is on the list and is particularly
useful because it helps convert bound nicotine molecules in
tobacco smoke into free nicotine molecules. This process is
known as freebasing which enhances the effect of the nicotine on
the smoker.[40]
[edit] Taxation
See also: Cigarette taxes in the United States
Cigarettes are a significant source of tax revenue in many
localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for
health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since
governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some
countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the
same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the
health field.[41] In the United States, cigarettes are taxed
substantially, but the states are a primary determinant of the
total tax rate. Generally, states that rely on tobacco as a
significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes at a low
rate.[42] It has been shown that higher prices for cigarettes
discourage smoking. Every 10 percent increase in the price of
cigarettes reduced youth smoking by about seven percent and
overall cigarette consumption by about four percent.[43] Thus
increased cigarette taxes are proposed as a means to reduce
smoking. Coupled with the federal cigarette tax of $1.01 per
pack, total cigarette-specific taxes range from $1.18 per pack
in Missouri to $10.00 per pack in New York City. States also
charge sizable settlement payments to tobacco companies, and the
federal government levies user fees to fund FDA regulatory
measures over tobacco. While these charges are not
cigarette-specific, tobacco companies are ultimately forced to
pass on those costs to their consumers. Lastly, most
jurisdictions apply sales tax to the full retail price of
cigarettes.
In the UK, many people now illegally import cigarettes, or buy
those illegally imported, due to the increasing tax. A packet is
less than half the price in some other countries, making illegal
importers a large profit, while still providing comparatively
very cheap cigarettes. The average price for 20 legal cigarettes
is between £5.00 and £6.00, while imported packs are sold for
less than £3; this is due to the fact that the large majority of
the sale price of a legitimate pack is tax.
[edit] Sales
A Woolworths supermarket cigarette counter in New South Wales,
Australia. Australia has recently prohibited the display of
cigarettes in retail outlets, country wide.
[edit] Cigarette advertising
Main article: tobacco advertising
Before the Second World War many manufacturers gave away
collectible cards, one in each packet of cigarettes. This
practice was discontinued to save paper during the war and was
never generally reintroduced, though for a number of
#Post#: 17--------------------------------------------------
Re: :OO
By: persekarv Date: August 9, 2011, 8:02 am
---------------------------------------------------------
LOL?S?S?
#Post#: 18--------------------------------------------------
Re: :OO
By: pekkaalaviiva Date: August 9, 2011, 8:02 am
---------------------------------------------------------
Samaa mielt'ä
#Post#: 19--------------------------------------------------
Re: :OO
By: persekarv Date: August 9, 2011, 8:04 am
---------------------------------------------------------
tobacco per 1000 cigarettes fell from 2.28 pounds in 1960 to
0.91 pounds in 1999, largely as a result of reconstituting
tobacco, fluffing and additives.
[edit] Additives
Chemicals are added by cigarette manufactures for organoleptic
purposes.[38] 599 additives have been approved by the Dept. of
Health and Human Services in April 1994 for use in the
manufacture of cigarettes. None of these additives need to be
listed as ingredients on the cigarette pack. The list of legal
cigarette additives was created by the five major American
cigarette companies. All of the ingredients are also approved as
additives for foods,[39] but not all of them have been tested
for what they become in smoke during burning.[citation needed]
A chemical called ammonia is on the list and is particularly
useful because it helps convert bound nicotine molecules in
tobacco smoke into free nicotine molecules. This process is
known as freebasing which enhances the effect of the nicotine on
the smoker.[40]
[edit] Taxation
See also: Cigarette taxes in the United States
Cigarettes are a significant source of tax revenue in many
localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for
health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since
governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some
countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the
same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the
health field.[41] In the United States, cigarettes are taxed
substantially, but the states are a primary determinant of the
total tax rate. Generally, states that rely on tobacco as a
significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes at a low
rate.[42] It has been shown that higher prices for cigarettes
discourage smoking. Every 10 percent increase in the price of
cigarettes reduced youth smoking by about seven percent and
overall cigarette consumption by about four percent.[43] Thus
increased cigarette taxes are proposed as a means to reduce
smoking. Coupled with the federal cigarette tax of $1.01 per
pack, total cigarette-specific taxes range from $1.18 per pack
in Missouri to $10.00 per pack in New York City. States also
charge sizable settlement payments to tobacco companies, and the
federal government levies user fees to fund FDA regulatory
measures over tobacco. While these charges are not
cigarette-specific, tobacco companies are ultimately forced to
pass on those costs to their consumers. Lastly, most
jurisdictions apply sales tax to the full retail price of
cigarettes.
In the UK, many people now illegally import cigarettes, or buy
those illegally imported, due to the increasing tax. A packet is
less than half the price in some other countries, making illegal
importers a large profit, while still providing comparatively
very cheap cigarettes. The average price for 20 legal cigarettes
is between £5.00 and £6.00, while imported packs are sold for
less than £3; this is due to the fact that the large majority of
the sale price of a legitimate pack is tax.
[edit] Sales
A Woolworths supermarket cigarette counter in New South Wales,
Australia. Australia has recently prohibited the display of
cigarettes in retail outlets, country wide.
[edit] Cigarette advertising
Main article: tobacco advertising
Before the Second World War many manufacturers gave away
collectible cards, one in each packet of cigarettes. This
practice was discontinued to save paper during the war and was
never generally reintroduced, though for a number of years
Natural American Spirit cigarettes included "vignette" cards
depicting endangered animals and American historical events;
this series was discontinued in 2003. On April 1, 1970 President
Richard Nixon signed the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act
into law, banning cigarette advertisements on television in the
United States starting on January 2, 1971. However, some tobacco
companies attempted to circumvent the ban by marketing new
brands of cigarettes as "little cigars"; examples included
Tijuana Smalls, which came out almost immediately after the ban
took effect, and Backwoods Smokes, which reached the market in
the winter of 1973–1974 and whose ads used the slogan, "How can
anything that looks so wild taste so mild."
In many parts of the world tobacco advertising and even
sponsorship of sporting events has been outlawed. The ban on
tobacco advertising and sponsorship in the EU in 2005 has
prompted Formula One Management to look for races in areas that
allow the tobacco sponsored teams to display their livery. As of
2007, only the Scuderia Ferrari retains tobacco sponsorship,
continuing their relationship with Marlboro until 2011. In the
United States, bolder advertising restrictions took effect on
June 22, 2010.
In some jurisdictions, such as the Canadian provinces of British
Columbia, Saskatchewan and Alberta, the retail store display of
cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal
age of consumption have access to the premises.[44] In Ontario,
Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec, Canada, the
display of tobacco is prohibited for everyone, regardless of
age, as of 2010. This includes non-cigarette products such as
cigars and blunt wraps.[45][46]
[edit] Purchase restrictions
Beginning on April 1, 1998, the sale of cigarettes and other
tobacco products to people under the state purchase age has been
prohibited by law in all 50 states of the United States. The age
is 19 in Alabama, Alaska, New Jersey, Utah, and Nassau, Suffolk,
and Onondaga counties in New York.[47][48] The intended effect
of this is to prevent older high school students from purchasing
cigarettes for their younger peers. Legislation was pending as
of 2004 in some other states. In Massachusetts,[49] parents and
guardians are allowed to give cigarettes to minors, but sales to
minors are prohibited.
Similar laws exist in many other countries. In Canada, most of
the provinces require smokers to be 19 years of age to purchase
cigarettes (except for Quebec and the prairie provinces, where
the age is 18). However, the minimum age only concerns the
purchase of tobacco, not use. Alberta, however, does have a law
which prohibits the possession or use of tobacco products by all
persons under 18, punishable by a $100 fine. Australia, New
Zealand, Poland and Pakistan have a nationwide ban on the
selling of all tobacco products to people under the age of 18.
Tabak-Trafik in Vienna. Since 1 January 2007, all cigarette
machines in Austria must attempt to verify a customer's age by
requiring the insertion of a debit card or mobile phone
verification.
Since 1 October 2007, it has been illegal for retailers to sell
tobacco in all forms to people under the age of 18 in three of
the UK's four constituent countries (England, Wales and
Scotland) (rising from 16). It is also illegal to sell lighters,
rolling papers and all other tobacco-associated items to people
under 18. It is not illegal for people under 18 to buy or smoke
tobacco, just as it was not previously for people under 16; it
is only illegal for the said retailer to sell the item. The age
increase from 16 to 18 came into force in Northern Ireland on 1
September 2008. In the Republic of Ireland, bans on the sale of
the smaller ten-packs and confectionery that resembles tobacco
products (Candy cigarettes) came into force on May 31, 2007 in a
bid to cut underaged smoking. The UK Department of Health plans
to follow suit with the ten-pack ban.
Most countries in the world have a legal vending age of 18. Some
exceptions are Italy, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, the
Netherlands and Gibraltar, where the age is 16. Since January 1,
2007, all cigarette machines in public places in Germany must
attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of
a debit card. Turkey, which has one of the highest percentage of
smokers in its population,[50] has a legal age of 18. Another
curiosity is Japan, one of the highest tobacco-consuming
nations, which requires purchasers to be 20 years of age
(suffrage in Japan is 20 years old).[51] Since July 2008, Japan
has enforced this age limit at cigarette vending machines
through use of the taspo smart card. In other countries, such as
Egypt, it is legal to use and purchase tobacco products
regardless of age. Germany raised the purchase age from 16 to 18
on the 1 September 2007.
Some police departments in the United States occasionally send
an underaged teenager into a store where cigarettes are sold,
and have the teen attempt to purchase cigarettes, with their own
or no ID. If the vendor then completes the sale, the store is
issued a fine.[52] Similar enforcement practices are regularly
performed by Trading Standards Officers in the UK and the Gardaí
Siochana, the police force of the Republic of Ireland.[53]
[edit] Consumption
As of 2002, approximately 5.5 trillion cigarettes are produced
globally each year and are smoked by over 1.1 billion people or
greater than one-sixth of the world population. While smoking
rates have leveled off or declined in developed nations, they
continue to rise in developing parts of the world. Smoking rates
in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006
falling from 42% to 20.8% of adults.[2] In the developing world,
tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.[3]
Smoking prevalence by gender (2000)
Region
Africa
United States
Eastern Mediterranean
Europe
Southeast Asia
Western Pacific
Source: World Health Organization estimates, 2000
Leading consumers of cigarettes (1998)[54] Country
(millions)
(billions)
(per capita)
China
USA
Japan
Russia
Indonesia
Smoking prevalence in the U.S. (2006)[55] Rank
State
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
[edit] Health issues
Main article: Health effects of tobacco
Nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in cigarettes, is
addictive.[56] Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been
shown to cause birth defects (which include mental and physical
disability).[7] On average, each cigarette smoked shortens
lifespan by 11 minutes[6] and half of smokers die early[5] of
tobacco-related disease and lose, on average, 14 years of
life.[6] Some of the mineral apatite in Florida used to produce
phosphate for U.S.A. tobacco crops contains uranium, radium,
lead 210 and polonium 210 and radon.[57] [58] The radioactive
smoke from tobacco fertilized this way is deposited in lungs and
releases radiation even if a smoker quits the habit. The
combination of carcinogenic tar and radiation in a sensitive
organ such as lungs increases the risk of cancer. If the smoker
also breathes in the asbestos fibers which commonly occur in
urban
Cigarette components
* Nicotine
* Smoke constituents
* Cigarette filter
* Cigarette holder
Mayfair
[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d Wigand, J.S. Additives, Cigarette Design and
Tobacco Product Regulation, A Report To: World Health
Organization, Tobacco Free Initiative, Tobacco Product
Regulation Group, Kobe, Japan, 28 June-2 July 2006
2. ^ a b "Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States,
2006". Cdc.gov.
HTML http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm#fig.<br
/>Retrieved 2009-11-13.
3. ^ a b "WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics". Wpro.who.int.
2002-05-28.
HTML http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_20020528.htm.<br
/>Retrieved 2009-11-13.
4. ^ [1]
5. ^ a b Doll, R.; Peto, R.; Boreham, J.; Sutherland, I.
(2004). "Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years'
observations on male British doctors". BMJ (Clinical research
ed.) 328 (7455): 1519. doi:10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE. PMC
437139. PMID 15213107. edit
6. ^ a b c
HTML http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/chi/chi24-4-pktguide.pdf
7. ^ a b "Smoking While Pregnant Causes Finger, Toe
Deformities". Science Daily.
HTML http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060106122922.htm.<br
/>Retrieved March 6, 2007.
8. ^ "WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control" (PDF).
World Health Organization. 2005-02-27.
HTML http://www.who.int/tobacco/framework/WHO_FCTC_english.pdf.<br
/>Retrieved 2009-01-12. "Parties recognize that scientific
evidence has unequivocally established that exposure to tobacco
causes death, disease and disability"
9. ^ "The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to
Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General". Surgeon General
of the United States. 2006-06-27.
HTML http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/secondhandsmoke.
Retrieved
2009-01-12. "Secondhand smoke exposure causes disease and
premature death in children and adults who do not smoke"
10. ^ "Proposed Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke
as a Toxic Air Contaminant". California Environmental Protection
Agency. 2005-06-24.
HTML http://repositories.cdlib.org/context/tc/article/1194/type/pdf/viewcontent/.<br
/>Retrieved 2009-01-12.
11. ^ "Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking" (PDF).
International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2004.
HTML http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol83/index.php.<br
/>Retrieved 2009-01-12. "There is sufficient evidence that
involuntary smoking (exposure to secondhand or 'environmental'
tobacco smoke) causes lung cancer in humans"
12. ^ "Les cigarettes anti-incendie seront obligatoires en
2011" (in French). L'Express.fr. AFP (L'Expansion).
HTML http://www.lexpansion.com/economie/actualite-high-tech/les-cigarettes-anti-incendie-seront-obligatoires-en-2011_160019.html.<br
/>Retrieved January 2, 2010. "According to a study made by
European union in 16 European countries, 11000 fires were due to
cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. They caused 520 deaths and
1600 people injured."
13. ^ "European Union Pushes for Self-Extinguishing
Cigarettes". Deutsche Welle (Deutsche Welle).
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