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Choi
By: Admin Date: March 2, 2017, 5:09 am
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582 New Concepts in Global Tectonics Journal, V. 4, No. 4,
December 2016. www.ncgt.org
Great deep earthquakes and solar cycles
Dong Choi1 and John Casey2
International Earthquake and Volcano Prediction Center
1dchoi@ievpc.org, Canberra, Australia
2jcasey@ievpc.org, Orlando, Florida, USA
Abstract: Great deep earthquakes (300 km or deeper with
magnitude 7.0 or greater) are considered the first tangible
appearance of the Earth’s outer core-derived thermal energy,
which later generates a series of shallow earthquakes.
Therefore, a right understanding of great deep earthquakes is
pivotal in predicting catastrophic earthquakes at the shallow
Earth. It is also important to understand Earth’s geodynamic
processes and their interaction with other planets, such as the
Sun. Historically the great deep earthquakes have occurred
sporadically, zero to four per year since 1970 only in some
limited areas in the Pacific Ocean and its surroundings. They
were almost absent prior to 1984, but suddenly increased in 1990
onwards when the Schwabe (11 year) solar cycle 22 peaked; after
which solar activity has been continuing to decline – implying
the arrival of a major prolonged solar low cycle or an
hibernation stage possibly comparable to the Dalton Minimum
(1790-1830) or the Maunder Minimum (1645-1715); both of which
had accompanied historic catastrophic earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. The great deep earthquake fluctuation is mainly
controlled by two combined cycles, the 11-year Schwabe cycle and
a longer 22 year Hale cycle, but obviously longer term solar
cycles, such as 100 and 206 year cycles, are also affecting.
Further study is required. Since 1990 the Earth’s core is
considered to have entered an active phase and has been
discharging powerful thermal energy into the mantle. The recent
spate of unusually strong earthquakes worldwide support this
assertion. We expect this trend to continue and strengthen for
the coming 20 to 30 years.
Keywords: earthquake-solar cycle anticorrelation, 11-year solar
cycle, 22-year solar cycle, great deep earthquake, Eddie
Minimum, thermal energy transmigration
(Received on 7 October 2016. Accepted on 26 December 2016)
1. INTRODUCTION
Our studies on the Sun-Earth interaction on the basis of
earthquakes/volcanic eruptions and solar cycles have clarified
many intriguing relationships between the Sun and the Earth.
Choi and Maslov (2010) established a reversed correlation
between the solar activity and earthquakes (Fig. 1) after the
extensive data analysis and review of published references.
Casey (2010) noted that the strongest volcanic and seismic
activities in the continental USA in the last 300 to 350 years
have occurred during the major solar minimums. Some earlier
works such as Simpson (1967) also noted the increased earthquake
activity during the solar declining period. The anticorrelation
between the Sun and seismic/volcanic activities has been
supported by many recent studies by the present Authors and
other researchers (Choi and Tsunoda, 2011; Choi et al., 2014;
Casey et al., 2016).
An underlying physical mechanism of this Sun and Earth
interaction requires further study: Gregori (2002) attributes to
Earth’s core being a leaky capacitor or a battery; when solar
activity is high, the Earth’s core is charged, whereas when the
Sun’s activity is in low phase, the core in turn discharges
energy.
Figure 1. Solar cycle (left) and the earthquake-solar cycle
anticorrelation (right) for strong, shallow earthquakes.
On the other hand, an improved understanding of earthquake
mechanism and precursory signals has led to many successful
earthquake predictions by a team of International Earthquake and
Volcano Prediction Center and other colleagues in recent years,
as demonstrated in many papers on the September 2015 M8.3 Chile
Earthquake (Césped, Choi and Casey, Davidson, Straser et al.,
Venkatanathan et al., U-Yen, and Wu, - all in NCGT Journal, v.
3, no. 4, p. 383-408, 2015). The April 2016 Kumamoto Japan
earthquake was linked to a swarm of deep quakes in 2010 in the
Celebes Sea, Philippines (Tsunoda and Choi, 2016). This quake
also revealed several critical precursors and was successfully
predicted (Cataldi et al., 2016; Hayakawa and Asano, 2016; Wu,
2016).
These successful predictions and improved understanding of
earthquake generation mechanisms tell us; 1) important role of
deep earthquakes, 300 km or deeper, with magnitude, 7.0 or
greater, in generating catastrophic earthquakes at shallow
Earth, validating the thermal transmigration concept by Blot
(1976) (see also Grover, 1998), and 2) the interaction between
planets and Earth, especially the Sun and Earth and their cycles
in triggering shallow earthquakes (Kolvankar, 2011; Gregori,
2015; and others).
Because the deep (300 km or deeper) great earthquakes (magnitude
7.0 or greater) are considered the first tangible appearance of
the Earth’s outer-core discharged thermal energy, they are
considered to directly reflect the activity of the outer core
which is intricately interacting with the solar activity and its
cycle. We consider the great deep quakes, particularly in the
South Fiji –Lau Basins, Southwest Pacific, most sensitively
respond to the outer core activity, because the region is the
site where thermal plume rises directly from the outer core
according to the mantle tomography (Kawakami et al., 1996).
The clarification of the solar cycle and great deep quakes is
all the more important today as we have entered a major solar
low cycle, which is comparable to the Dalton Minimum (1790-1830)
or Maunder Minimum (1645-1715), or solar hibernation (Casey,
2010 and 2014; Casey et al., 2016), which had accompanied
strongest earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
All the earthquake records used in this study come from the IRIS
archives (
HTML http://ds.iris.edu/seismon/),
with reference to the
USGS archives for verification. There are some minor
discrepancies between them, especially in magnitude assignment.
2. DEEP GREAT EARTHQUAKES IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC REGION AND
SOUTH AMERICA
Deep and great earthquakes are distributed mostly in the western
Pacific region and Southeast Asia. They also occur in South
America (Fig. 2). The most frequent occurrence is the South Fiji
Basin – Lau Basin, Southwest Pacific where superplume rises from
the Earth’s outer core (Kawakai et al., 1994). In all areas deep
earthquakes distribute linearly, implying the control by
deep-seated fracture systems (Choi, 2005).
Figure 2. Great (M6.5+) earthquakes in the western Pacific/SE
Asia (left) and South America (right). Generated from IRIS
website (
HTML http://ds.iris.edu/seismon/).
For greater clarity only
quakes deeper than 300 km are displayed on the left map. The
right map includes all depths. Note linearly arranged
distribution, suggesting the involvement of deep fracture
systems reaching the upper mantle.
1) South Fiji Basin and Lau Basin, Southwest Pacific
The following table (Table 1) lists the great deep earthquakes
used for this study. Their depth-year diagram is shown at the
top of Fig. 3. The record shows no M7.0+ deep earthquakes from
1970 to 1984 in the region. This quiescence was interrupted in
1985-86, but then became quiet again until 1991. After that the
region has become seismically very active up until today, 2016.
Table 1. List of deep and very strong earthquakes in the Fiji
region, Southwest Pacific. Quakes with magnitude 6.5 or greater
and depth deeper than 350 km were extracted.
Year Month Day Time UTC Mag Lat Lon Depth km Region
1985 8 28 20:50:49 6.6 -21 -178.99 628.8 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1986 5 26 18:40:45 6.8 -21.78 -179.1 590.2 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1986 6 16 10:48:27 7.1 -21.93 -178.96 557.1 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1987 2 10 0:59:30 6.5 -19.36 -177.52 409.7 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1991 9 30 0:21:47 6.9 -20.9 -178.57 579.5 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1992 7 11 10:44:20 7.2 -22.5 -178.39 381.6 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
1993 4 16 14:08:38 6.9 -17.76 -178.85 563.6 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1994 3 9 23:28:04 7.5 -17.95 -178.43 533.9 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1994 3 31 22:40:51 6.5 -21.99 -179.52 570.5 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1994 10 27 22:20:27 6.6 -25.81 179.35 506.3 SOUTH OF FIJI
ISLANDS
1996 8 5 22:38:20 7.3 -20.72 -178.29 531.2 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1996 10 19 14:53:47 6.9 -20.41 -178.44 572.6 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1997 9 4 4:23:35 6.8 -26.5 178.32 608 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
1998 1 27 21:05:42 6.5 -22.46 179.12 588.1 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
1998 3 29 19:48:12 7.1 -17.66 -178.99 499.6 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
1998 5 16 2:22:02 6.8 -22.21 -179.5 570.5 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2000 12 18 1:19:21 6.5 -21.15 -179.12 617.7 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2001 4 28 4:49:51 6.9 -18.06 -176.94 340.6 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2002 6 30 21:29:36 6.5 -22.24 179.24 626.5 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2002 8 19 11:01:02 7.6 -21.7 -179.46 587.7 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2002 8 19 11:08:22 7.7 -23.87 178.45 649.9 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2003 1 4 5:15:05 6.5 -20.65 -177.63 390.4 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2004 7 15 4:27:13 7 -17.7 -178.77 560 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2004 11 17 21:09:09 6.6 -20.05 -178.72 592.2 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2006 1 2 22:13:40 7.1 -19.97 -178.11 584.1 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2006 2 2 12:48:43 6.7 -17.83 -178.28 599.6 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2007 5 6 21:11:53 6.5 -19.47 -179.33 678.6 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2007 10 5 7:17:54 6.5 -25.2 179.45 521.3 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2007 10 16 21:05:43 6.6 -25.74 179.5 501.2 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2008 1 15 17:52:16 6.5 -21.99 -179.58 597 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2009 11 9 10:44:54 7.3 -17.27 178.45 591.3 FIJI ISLANDS
2011 2 21 10:57:52 6.5 -26.14 178.39 558.1 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2011 7 29 7:42:23 6.7 -23.8 179.75 532 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2011 9 15 19:31:04 7.3 -21.61 -179.53 644.6 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2013 11 23 7:48:32 6.5 -17.1 -176.56 377 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2014 3 26 3:29:36 6.5 -26.09 179.28 493.1 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2014 5 4 9:15:52 6.6 -24.61 179.09 527 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2014 7 21 14:54:41 6.9 -19.83 -178.46 616.4 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2014 11 1 18:57:22 7.1 -19.7 -177.79 434.4 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
2016 5 28 5:38:51 6.6 -22.02 -178.16 416.8 SOUTH OF FIJI ISLANDS
2016 9 24 21:28:42 6.8 -19.84 -178.27 594.5 FIJI ISLANDS REGION
Their depth-year plot is shown below, Fig. 3. The concentration
is seen in the 500 to 600 km depth range. Note the M7.0+ quakes
which have increased from 1992; they are almost absent prior to
1992 except 1985.
Fig. 3. Depth- time (year) diagram of the M6.5+ deep quakes
since 1970. Note the absence or sparsity of samples prior to
1984, and an overall increase from 1990.
2) Solomon - Papua New Guinea
The following table (Table 2) is a list of M6.5+, deep quakes in
this region (Fig. 2). Only five quakes with a depth range of
386–500 km have been registered; three of them in the years from
2010 to 2016. Only one quake has a magnitude over 7.0+. Because
of the small number of samples and isolated, narrow occurrence,
this area is excluded in Figs. 3 and 6.
It is noted; 1) no samples deeper than 490 km, and 2) no quakes
prior to 1988 and frequent occurrence from 2010 onwards, which
follow the trends observed in other deep quake regions.
Table 2. List of deep, very strong earthquakes in the
Bougainville-New Ireland region.
Year Month Day Time UTC Mag Lat Lon Depth km Region
1989 8 21 18:25:40 6.5 -4.1 154.49 482.7 SOLOMON ISLANDS
1995 6 24 6:58:08 6.8 -3.96 153.91 403.8 NEW IRELAND REGION,
P.N.G.
2010 3 20 14:00:50 6.6 -3.38 152.28 418.9 NEW IRELAND REGION,
P.N.G.
2013 7 7 18:35:30 7.3 -3.92 153.92 386.3 NEW IRELAND REGION,
P.N.G.
2016 8 31 3:11:36 6.7 -3.69 152.79 499.1 NEW IRELAND REGION,
P.N.G.
3) Southeast Asia
Many earthquakes in the studied categories have been registered
in the Southeast Asia; Flores Sea, Java Sea, Banda Sea and
Celebes-Mindanao (Fig. 4). They are listed in Table 3.
This area follows the same trend as others; sparsity or total
absence of great deep quakes prior to 1990, and the peak
activity in 2009 to 2011 (Fig. 3).
Figure 4. Deep great earthquakes in the Southeast Asia.
Table 3. Deep (350 km+) and very strong (M6.5+) earthquakes,
Southeast Asia (Indonesia and Philippines) from 1970 to 2016
extracted from the IRIS website.
Year Month Day Time UTC Mag Lat Lon Depth km Region
1972 4 4 22:43:06 6.6 -7.47 125.56 -375.5 BANDA SEA
1984 3 5 3:33:51 7.3 8.17 123.77 -656.1 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
1991 6 7 11:51:24 6.9 -7.11 122.76 -505.4 FLORES SEA
1992 8 2 12:03:20 6.6 -7.12 121.76 -484.4 FLORES SEA
1994 9 28 16:39:53 6.6 -5.76 110.42 -660.5 JAVA SEA
1994 11 15 20:18:11 6.5 -5.62 110.26 -567.7 JAVA SEA
1996 6 17 11:22:18 7.7 -7.11 122.61 -589.5 FLORES SEA
2000 8 7 14:33:56 6.5 -6.98 123.43 -666.1 BANDA SEA
2003 5 26 23:13:31 6.8 6.77 123.81 -586.9 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2004 7 25 14:35:17 7.3 -2.49 103.97 -581.9 SOUTHERN SUMATERA,
INDONESIA
2005 2 5 12:23:18 7 5.29 123.44 -540.4 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2006 1 27 16:58:54 7.5 -5.45 128.19 -403.6 BANDA SEA
2009 8 28 1:51:19 6.9 -7.2 123.46 -640.1 BANDA SEA
2009 10 4 10:58:00 6.6 6.67 123.51 -635 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2009 10 7 21:41:14 6.8 4.09 122.54 -586.8 CELEBES SEA
2010 7 23 23:15:09 7.5 6.74 123.33 -633.7 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2010 7 23 22:51:13 7.7 6.42 123.58 -584.7 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2010 7 23 22:08:11 7.3 6.71 123.49 -610.2 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2010 7 24 5:35:01 6.6 6.17 123.56 -564.7 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2010 7 29 7:31:56 6.6 6.56 123.36 -615.8 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2011 2 10 14:41:58 6.5 4.08 123.04 -525 CELEBES SEA
2011 2 10 14:39:27 6.5 4.2 122.97 -523.2 CELEBES SEA
2011 3 10 17:08:36 6.6 -6.87 116.72 -510.6 BALI SEA
2011 8 30 6:57:41 6.9 -6.36 126.75 -469.8 BANDA SEA
2014 12 2 5:11:31 6.6 6.09 123.13 -614 MINDANAO, PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
2015 2 27 13:45:05 7 -7.29 122.53 -552.3 FLORES SEA
2016 10 19 0:26:01 6.6 -4.86 108.16 -614 JAVA SEA
4) Offshore South Japan, Sea of Japan and Okhotsk Sea
Numerous deep quakes with magnitude 6.5 or greater have been
registered in these regions (Fig. 5). Like other areas, the
quakes in this category burst from 1984 onwards. Before 1984, on
the contrary, quake occurred rarely.
As noted earlier, the quakes in this category directly reflect
the orthogonal deep fracture patterns formed in early stage of
the Earth’s formation, Precambrian (Choi, 2005).
It should be noted that a strongest deep quake (M8.4) since 1970
occurred in the northernmost Okhotsk Sea in 2013 (Fig. 3 and
Table 1, yellow highlight). This energy is expected to reappear
at shallow depth in 2017 to 2018 offshore Kamchatka as gigantic
earthquakes.
Figure 5. Very strong earthquakes (M6.5+) around Japan and the
Okhotsk Sea. Note linear and orthogonal distribution of deep
earthquakes, which reflects the occurrence of deep quakes along
deep-seated fault zones.
Table 4. List of earthquakes included in analysis of this study.
Year Month Day Time UTC Mag Lat Lon Depth km Region
1970 8 30 17:46:08 6.5 52.36 151.64 -643 SEA OF OKHOTSK
1973 9 29 0:44:00 6.5 41.93 130.99 -567.4 NORTH KOREA
1978 3 7 2:48:47 6.9 31.99 137.61 -440.6 SOUTH OF HONSHU, JAPAN
1984 1 1 9:03:40 7.2 33.62 136.8 -386.4 NEAR S. COAST OF WESTERN
HONSHU
1984 3 6 2:17:20 7.4 29.35 138.92 -454.2 SOUTH OF HONSHU, JAPAN
1985 4 3 20:21:36 6.5 28.27 139.55 -475.4 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
1986 2 3 20:47:36 6.5 27.87 139.51 -526.8 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
1987 5 7 3:05:48 6.8 46.75 139.22 -417.1 NEAR SOUTHEAST COAST OF
RUSSIA
1987 5 18 3:07:34 6.8 49.24 147.69 -545.6 SEA OF OKHOTSK
1988 9 7 11:53:25 6.7 30.31 137.5 -501.8 SOUTH OF HONSHU, JAPAN
1990 5 12 4:50:08 7.2 49.05 141.88 -602.5 SAKHALIN ISLAND
1991 5 3 2:14:18 6.7 28.09 139.67 -471.4 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
1992 1 20 13:37:04 6.7 27.93 139.47 -521.3 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
1992 10 30 2:49:50 6.5 29.95 139.1 -418.5 SOUTH OF HONSHU, JAPAN
1993 1 19 14:39:26 6.6 38.68 133.56 -446.6 SEA OF JAPAN
1993 10 11 15:54:22 6.8 32.05 137.97 -366.7 SOUTH OF HONSHU,
JAPAN
1994 7 21 18:36:30 7.3 42.37 132.91 -458.8 NEAR SOUTHEAST COAST
OF RUSSIA
1996 3 16 22:04:06 6.7 28.97 138.98 -481.5 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
1998 8 20 6:40:56 7.1 28.93 139.36 -442.8 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
1999 4 8 13:10:34 7.1 43.61 130.41 -564.1 E. RUSSIA-N.E. CHINA
BORDER REG.
2000 8 6 7:27:14 7.3 28.8 139.6 -416.9 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
2002 6 28 17:19:30 7.3 43.76 130.67 -568 E. RUSSIA-N.E. CHINA
BORDER REG.
2002 11 17 4:53:55 7.3 47.77 145.99 -483.9 SEA OF OKHOTSK
2003 7 27 6:25:31 6.8 47.1 139.21 -467.5 NEAR SOUTHEAST COAST OF
RUSSIA
2007 7 16 14:17:37 6.8 36.86 134.82 -349 SEA OF JAPAN
2008 7 5 2:12:06 7.7 53.95 152.86 -646.1 SEA OF OKHOTSK
2008 11 24 9:03:00 7.3 54.22 154.29 -505.3 SEA OF OKHOTSK
2009 8 9 10:55:56 7.1 33.15 138.06 -302.2 SOUTH OF HONSHU, JAPAN
2010 2 18 1:13:18 6.9 42.6 130.7 -573.7 E. RUSSIA-N.E. CHINA
BORDER REG.
2010 11 30 3:24:41 6.8 28.39 139.24 -485 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
2011 1 12 21:32:53 6.5 26.97 139.88 -512 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
2012 1 1 5:27:55 6.8 31.46 138.07 -365.3 SOUTH OF HONSHU, JAPAN
2012 8 14 2:59:38 7.7 49.8 145.06 -583.2 SEA OF OKHOTSK
2013 5 24 5:44:48 8.4 54.89 153.22 -598.1 SEA OF OKHOTSK
2013 5 24 14:56:31 6.7 52.24 151.44 -624 SEA OF OKHOTSK
2013 9 4 0:18:24 6.5 30.01 138.79 -407 SOUTH OF HONSHU, JAPAN
2015 5 30 11:23:02 7.8 27.83 140.49 -677.6 BONIN ISLANDS REGION
5) South America
As seen in the list below (Table 5) and the depth-year diagram
(Fig. 8), there are no M6.5+ quakes in the 300-500 km depth
window in South America. Their depths are concentrated around
600 km. Like other areas, the quakes are sporadic prior to 1983,
after which steady appearance is seen.
Table 5. List of deep, very strong earthquakes analysed in this
study. See Figs. 2 and 3 for geographic and depth-year
distributions, respectively.
Year Month Day Time UTC Mag Lat Lon Depth km Region
1970 7 31 17:08:05 6.5 -1.46 -72.56 -653 COLOMBIA
1983 12 21 12:05:06 7 -28.13 -63.15 -591.9 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
1985 5 1 13:27:57 6.6 -9.21 -71.22 -612.6 PERU-BRAZIL BORDER
REGION
1985 10 31 21:49:19 6.5 -28.69 -63.14 -588.9 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
1989 5 5 18:28:40 7 -8.28 -71.39 -605.9 WESTERN BRAZIL
1990 10 17 14:30:15 7 -11.01 -70.77 -625.9 PERU-BRAZIL BORDER
REGION
1991 6 23 21:22:29 7.1 -26.75 -63.3 -558.4 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
1994 1 10 15:53:50 6.9 -13.34 -69.41 -604.9 PERU-BOLIVIA BORDER
REGION
1994 4 29 7:11:29 6.9 -28.25 -63.22 -554.4 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
1994 5 10 6:36:28 6.9 -28.51 -63.02 -604.2 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
1994 6 9 0:33:16 8.2 -13.87 -67.51 -640 NORTHERN BOLIVIA
1994 8 19 10:02:51 6.5 -26.6 -63.38 -558.3 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
1997 11 28 22:53:42 6.6 -13.77 -68.8 -599.8 PERU-BOLIVIA BORDER
REGION
2000 4 23 9:27:23 7 -28.29 -62.94 -603.6 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
2002 10 12 20:09:09 6.9 -8.32 -71.67 -516.4 WESTERN BRAZIL
2003 6 20 6:19:40 7 -7.63 -71.71 -572 WESTERN BRAZIL
2005 3 21 12:23:53 6.9 -24.94 -63.46 -576.6 SALTA PROVINCE,
ARGENTINA
2006 11 13 1:26:36 6.8 -26.16 -63.29 -581.9 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
2010 5 24 16:18:28 6.5 -8.12 -71.64 -582.1 WESTERN BRAZIL
2011 1 1 9:56:58 7 -26.8 -63.14 -576.8 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
2011 9 2 13:47:09 6.7 -28.4 -63.03 -578.9 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
2011 11 22 18:48:16 6.6 -15.36 -65.09 -549.9 CENTRAL BOLIVIA
2012 5 28 5:07:23 6.7 -28.04 -63.09 -586.9 SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO
PROV., ARG.
2015 11 24 22:45:38 7.6 -10.55 -70.9 -600.6 PERU-BRAZIL BORDER
REGION
2015 11 24 22:50:53 7.6 -10.05 -71.02 -611.7 PERU-BRAZIL BORDER
REGION
2015 11 26 5:45:18 6.7 -9.19 -71.29 -599.4 PERU-BRAZIL BORDER
REGION
3. GREAT DEEP EARTHQUAKES AND SOLAR CYCLE
1) General trends in great deep quake occurrence
This section compares the solar cycle and the great deep
earthquakes scanned through in the foregoing pages. A summary
figure of the depth-year diagram is shown in Fig. 3, and that of
the frequency-year in Fig. 6.
Each region has some distinctive trends, but on the whole the
following trends are recognized.
- The complete absence or sparsity of great deep earthquakes
throughout the globe prior to 1984.
- A peak in 1984 followed by a relative quiescence from 1985 to
1989. Note here that the M7.0+ quake
peak in 1984 in IRIS archive (Fig. 6) is not seen in USGS
archive (see Fig. 7) – they were downgraded below 7.0 magnitude
in the latter.
- Another outstanding peak in 1994 which is seen in all study
areas. It is followed by an overall active
phase until 1998, which is particularly well observed in South
Fiji-Lau Basins. A quiet period ensued
from 1999 to 2001.
- A sudden burst in 2002 which is followed by a relatively
active phase until 2010.
- A peak in 2015 which is seen commonly in Southeast Asia, Sea
of Japan and South America, but it is
not seen in Fiji.
In terms of the depth of hypocenters, most regions (Fiji, SE
Asia and South America) have a concentration in 550 and 620 km,
but the South of Japan, Sea of Japan and Okhotsk Sea areas are
slightly shallower, 400 to 600 km. As stated earlier, it is
worthy to note - the narrow hypocentre range (around 600 km) and
the complete absence of South American deep quakes between 300
and 500 km.
2) Comparison of great deep quake trends and solar cycles
The solar cycle and earthquake frequency are compared in Fig. 6.
If we see the peaks of magnitude 7+ shocks with three or more
per year in the second top figure, the spikes are, 1984, 1994,
2020, 2010 and 2015. All of them are located at the start of the
lowering cycle, during the lowering period, or the later stage
of the trough.
The Southwest Pacific record is most remarkable. All of the high
activity periods represented by M6.5+ quakes almost perfectly
correlate to the solar cycle lows or troughs. However, other
areas, do not necessary follow this trend, although overall
trend remains the same – heightened activity during the trough.
Here the highest activity in 2010 in Southeast Asia is most
outstanding. Note here a disturbed solar cycle trend between
cycles 23 and 24; unusually longer lowering cycle. In South
America 2015 was the most active year – which corresponds to the
early lowering period after the cycle 24 peaked in 2012.
As illustrated in the M7.0+ quake fluctuation from 1970 to 2016
(Fig. 6, second figure from the top), the overall frequency of
the great deep quakes became much more active after 1994 with a
precursory minor peak in 1990. This fact coincides with the
declining solar curve started from the cycle 22 peak, 1990 (Fig.
6 top figure), which is still continuing today, and expected to
last 20 to 30 years more – coined solar hibernation by Casey
(2014). Recently the solar physics community named the expected
solar minimum covering solar cycles 24, 25 and 26, the “Eddy”
Minimum
(
HTML https://wattsupwiththat.com/2013/01/07/the-potential-impact-of-volcanic-overprinting-of-the-eddy-minimum/).
Figure 6. Histogram of M6.5+ quakes with emphasis on M7.0+
quakes and their comparison with the solar cycle curve. The list
in this figure is solely based on the IRIS registered
earthquakes which are somewhat different from the USGS data base
as seen in Fig. 7. The “Earth core active phase” from Choi and
Maslov (2010), and “seismo-volcanic quiescence” from Choi (2010)
and Tsunoda et al. (2013). Blue shade indicates the lowering and
trough of solar cycle.
The heightened seismic activity possibly coming from the
increased core activity (“Earth core active phase”) since 1990
has been discovered by Choi and Maslov (2010). It has been also
summarized by Choi
et al. (2014) based on the worldwide seismic and volcanic
eruption records. This is best illustrated in Fig. 7, in which
clear correlation is seen in the coincidence between the “Earth
core active phase” and the sudden increase in seismic activity
from 1990.
Figure 7. Earthquakes and solar cycle. Cited from Choi et al.
(2014). This figure is solely based on USGS NEIC archives. Note
a sudden increase in both shallow and deep seismic activity
started from 1990 which coincides with the “Earth core active
phase” by Choi and Maslov (2010). All of the California’s M7.0+
quakes have occurred exclusively after 1991. Note, 1) major
volcanic eruptions occurred at the second peak or the early
stage of lowering cycle, and 2) deep precursory quakes of
Japan’s M9.0 quake in 2011 occurred in 2005 to 2007 (Choi, 2011)
which belong to the lowering period of cycle 23.
4. DISCUSSION
Great deep earthquakes show correlation with the combined
cycles: 1) the 11 year Schwabe cycle, and 2) the 22 year Hale
cycle which coincides with the peak of the 11 year cycle 23. The
latter is most conspicuous – prior to 1990, almost no great deep
quakes, except for a peak in 1984 indicated in the IRIS archive
(note: this peak is not present in the USGS archive).
Since this analysis covered the period 1970 to 2016, the
possibility exists for the influence of longer
duration solar cycles than the 11 and 22 year cycles upon the
frequency and extent of deep earthquakes.
Further analysis is required. For example previous work by Casey
(2010, 2013 and 2014) has shown a 100 and 206 year cycle in
solar activity.
5. CONCLUSIONS
1. The Earth’s core activity has entered an active phase since
1990 as seen in the sudden appearance of
great deep earthquakes after 1990.
2. This 1990 is the starting year of unusual behaviour of solar
activity – lingering lowering period of the 11-year cycles
(between cycle nos. 23, 24 and 25), and declining peaks of
cycles.
3. We expect the stronger release of thermal energy from the
outer core to continue for the coming 20 to 30 years, which
would generate catastrophic earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
throughout the globe.
4. Regional differences in the timing, intensity, and depth of
deep quakes indicate the presence of other factors in deep
quakes and solar activity.
References cited
Blot, C., 1976. Volcanisme et séismicité dans les arcs
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large magnitude geophysical evens. Space and Science Research
Center, Research Report 1–2010 (Preliminary), p. 1-5. ISBN
Casey, J.L., 2013. Cold Sun. Trafford Publishing, 167p., ISBN
978-1-4269-6793-1.
Casey, J.L., 2014. Dark winter. Humanix Books, 164p., ISBN
978-1-63006-023-7.
Casey, J.L., Choi, D.R., Tsunoda, F. and Humlum, O., 2016.
Upheaval! Why catastrophic earthquakes will soon
strike the United States. Trafford Publishing, 323p., ISBN
978-1-4907-7903-4.
Cataldi, G., Cataldi, D. and Straser, V., 2016. Solar activity
correlated to the M7.0 Japan earthquake occurred on
April 5, 2016. NCGT Journal, v. 4, no. 2, p. 279-285.
Césped, AR., 2015. Analysis of psychrometric parameters
associated with seismic precursors in Central Chile: A new
earthquake or the Great 2010 Maule M8.8 aftershock? NCGT
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zones: A new interpretation of the Wadati-Benioff Zone. Boll.
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Choi, D.R., 2010. Global seismic synchronicity. NCGT Newsletter,
no. 55, p. 66-73.
Choi, D.R., 2011. Geological analysis of the Great East Japan
Earthquake in March 2011. NCGT Newsletter, no. 59, p. 55-68.
Choi, D.R. and Casey, J., 2015. Blot’s energy transmigration law
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3, no. 3, p. 387-390.
Choi, D.R., Casey, J.L., Maslov, L. and Tsunoda, F., 2014.
Earthquakes and solar cycles: increased Earth core activity
since 1990. Space and Science Research Corporation, Global
Climate Status Report, March 2014.
Choi, D.R. and Maslov, L., 2010. Earthquakes and solar activity
cycles. NCGT Newsletter, v. 1, no. 2, p. 65-80.
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Advance warning techniques to master the deadly science.
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276-278
-----
NCGT Journal, v. 1, no. 3, September 2013. www.ncgt.org 2
FROM THE EDITOR
Earthquakes and surge tectonics
As some of you may be aware, in February of this year the
International Earthquake and Volcano Prediction Center (IEVPC)
warned of possible strong earthquakes in Yunnan, South China
(www.ivepc.org). This was based on various signals we had
detected from the region since late last year. In accordance
with our prediction, an M6.6 quake occurred on 20 April 2013 in
Sichuan near the predicted area. More than 150 people died.
Immediately after the quake, Chinese National TV interviewed
John Casey, Chairman of the IEVPC, at the head office in
Florida, and broadcast it in real time throughout their
country. The second quake (M5.8) occurred on 31 August 2013 in
northernmost Yunnan. Since then the region’s
seismo-electromagnetic activities have been gradually abating.
___Our comprehensive geological-seismological analysis conducted
for this particular prediction confirmed a very interesting
fact: the presence of a live surge channel occupying the Yunnan
and Sichuan region (originally described by Meyerhoff et al.,
1992 & 1996).
Since the 1970s it has hosted a series of strong earthquakes
along a major NE-SW tectonic belt that connects to the Tan-lu
Fault in North China and, further northwards, a deep
tectonic/seismic zone in the Okhotsk Sea.
___Along the Myanmar-South China segment of this tectonic zone,
three major earthquakes have occurred since late last year – an
M6.8 quake in central Myanmar in November 2012 (IEVPC
colleagues successfully predicted it with pinpoint accuracy),
an M6.6 in Sichuan in April 2013, and an M5.8 in northernmost
Yunnan in August 2013. Their geological significance in
relation to the Yunnan surge channel is discussed on pages
45-55 of this NCGT issue.
The Yunnan surge channel develops on the axis of the northern
end of the Borneo- Vanuatu Geanticline, which has been heavily
oceanized in the SW Pacific and Southeast Asian region.
___As stated in my article in this issue (pages 45-55), the
Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline is a trunk surge channel through
which the energy derived from the superplume in the SW Pacific
migrates northward, and the process occurring in the Yunnan
surge channel can be regarded as an incipient stage of
oceanization.
The IEVPC’s continuing successful earthquake predictions are the
result of combining the right seismo-tectonic model with
medium- and short-term signal detection tools.
___The new earthquake model is based on thermal energy derived
from the Earth’s outer core, its transmigration along deep
fracture systems and surge channels, trap structures,
geological history represented by orogenic events, and local and
regional geology.
Thermal energy (or perhaps more properly,
thermal-electromagnetic energy) transmigration is the heart of
the IEVPC’s working model. Hence a good knowledge of local and
regional geological structure is essential in predicting in
which direction the generated energy will flow, particularly in
areas where strong deep earthquakes have occurred. In this
context, surge tectonics is instrumental in our prediction
approach. Earthquakes as well as volcanic activities cannot
happen without heat input into the upper mantle and the crust.
___Like hydrocarbons, migrating or flowing thermal energy
accumulates in structural highs with effective seals in the
upper mantle. We therefore assume that earthquake belts have
underlying channels through which thermal energy can flow – they
are often developed in ancient or young orogenic/mobile belts
that form structural highs in the mantle.
As a practising field geologist, I am convinced that surge
tectonics is a comprehensive and workable tectonic concept that
can explain most of what we observe at the Earth’s surface and
in its interior, although some updates are needed to
incorporate new data that have appeared since 1996, when the
most recent version of surge tectonics was published. In this
issue Karsten Storetvedt presents a critique of surge tectonics
and a defence of wrench tectonics (p. 56-102), to which David
Pratt (p. 103-117) and Arthur Meyerhoff’s children (p. 117-121)
reply. Another response by Taner et al. will be published in
the next issue. We welcome this open debate in the pages of the
NCGT Journal.
References
Meyerhoff, A.A., Taner, I., Morris, A.E.L., Martin, B.D., Agocs,
W.B. and Meyerhoff, H., 1992. Surge tectonics. In:
Chatterjee, S. and Hotton, N. III (eds.), New Concepts in Global
Tectonics, Texas Tech Univ. Press, Lubbock. p. 309-409.
Meyerhoff, A.A., Taner, I., Morris, A.E.L., Agocs, W.B.,
Kamen-kaye, M., Bhat, M.I., Smoot, N.C., Choi, D.R. and
Meyerhoff-Hull, D. (ed.), 1996. Surge tectonics: a new
hypothesis of global geodynamics. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 323p.
NCGT Journal, v. 1, no. 3, September 2013. www.ncgt.org
An Archean geanticline stretching from the South Pacific to
Siberia, Dong R. CHOI………………………………..45
(The Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline was found to connect to the
Siberian Craton via the East Asia Reflective Axial Belt in
China. This super antilinal trend forms one of the most
outstanding Archean structural elements on the Earth’s surface
together with the “North-South American Superantilcine”, an
antipodal counterpart in the western hemisphere)
NCGT Journal, v. 1, no. 3, September 2013. www.ncgt.org
45
AN ARCHEAN GEANTICLINE STRETCHING FROM THE SOUTH PACIFIC TO
SIBERIA
Dong R. CHOI
International Earthquake and Volcano Prediction Center
Canberra, Australia
dchoi@ievpc.org
Abstract: The Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline reported earlier by the
author was found to connect to the Siberian Craton via the East
Asia Reflective Axial Belt in China. This geanticlinal trend,
here called the South Pacific-Siberia Geanticline” (SPSG),
forms one of the most outstanding Archean structural elements on
the Earth’s surface, together with the “North-South American
Geanticline” (NSAG), an antipodal counterpart in the western
hemisphere.
___The SPSG has been subject to strong magmatic and tectonic
activities in the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic, notably in the
South Pacific and Southeast Asia region where uplift and
oceanization-induced subsidence took place in the Cenozoic.
The Yunnan surge channel in South China, characterized by a
kobergen and well- developed low-velocity layers in the upper
mantle and the lower crust, sits on this geanticline.
___The fact that the framework of these two global-scale
geanticlinal trends is still preserved almost intact flatly
contradicts large-scale horizontal movement of the Earth’s
crust and mantle, and provides constraints on geodynamic models
of the Earth.
Keywords: Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline, East Asia Reflective Axial
Belt, Yunnan surge channel, N-S American Geanticline, Siberian
Craton, Earth’s geodynamics
1. Introduction
While studying the geology of China to facilitate earthquake
prediction for the Yunnan-Sichuan area, the author came across
a significant tectonic feature regarding the northern extension
of the Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline (Choi, 2005 and 2007) through
China and Mongolia to the Siberian Craton.
___This geanticlinal trend hosts the Yunnan surge channel
identified by Meyerhoff et al. (1992 and 1996), where very
active seismic activity has been occurring in recent times.
Together with the North-South American counterpart that is
situated in an antipodal position, the existence of this
global-scale geanticlinal trend has wide ramifications in
understanding geodynamic processes and the history of the Earth.
Here I briefly report these new findings, focusing on the
northward tectonic link of the BVG. A more detailed account of
the Yunnan surge channel and its geological significance will
be given on another occasion (Choi et al., in preparation).
Another paper on mineral deposits along the Geantincline is also
in preparation (Michaelson and Choi).
2. Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline (BVG)
The Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline was first proposed by the author
of this paper (Choi, 2005 and 2007).
___Its presence was detected on a free-air gravity map (to
degree 10) published by the Circum-Pacific Council for Energy
and Mineral Resources (1985), Fig. 1; it is considered to show
the density contrast from the surface to the core-mantle
boundary, 2,900 km. This linear mantle high sits on a
high-velocity anomaly zone in the deep mantle tomographic
images by Fukao et al. (1994), thus it is undoubtedly deep
rooted, reaching the core-mantle boundary. The gravity peaks are
situated in the North and South Fiji basins, New Guinea and
Borneo: the axial area (several thousand km wide) is
characterized by high heat flow, especially in the Fiji Basins
(Tuezov and Lipina, 1988), mantle-origin ultramafic or
ophiolitic rocks (New Guinea Island and Banda Sea), and
Precambrian-Lower Paleozoic rocks or granite (Borneo). On both
wings of the BVG, deep-seated fault zones with swarms of deep
earthquakes are developed (Fig. 2). Today the BVG is very
active, characterized by both uplift and subsidence (where
oceanization has occurred). It is a trunk channel for thermal
energy that originates from the outer core and passes through a
superplume under the South Pacific (Fiji-Tonga) region to the
northern area, Southeast Asia, China and the western Pacific
including Japan (Tsunoda et al., 2003).
==Figure 1. Free-air gravity to degree 10 around the Australian
continent and the axis of the Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline. This
map is considered to show the density contrast from the surface
to the core-mantle interface (2,900 km; Circum-Pacific Council
for Energy and Mineral Resources, 1985). Cited from Choi (2005).
==Figure 2. Tectonic framework of the BVG in relation to deep
earthquake belts and major tectonic zones (Choi, 2005). EARA
Belt = East Asia Reflective Axial Belt redefined by Zhang and
Wang (1995). Note well-developed deep earthquake zones on both
wings of the BVG. Lineaments and ore deposits in the Australian
continent from O’Driscoll (1986).
3. Northern extension of the Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline
1) China
___As seen in Yanshin et al.’s (1966) map, Fig. 3, the BVG
obviously connects northward with the Yunnan-Guizhou Anticline
(brown stripe in the map); it is a N-S trending Proterozoic
anticline at the western margin of the Yangtze Platform.
==Figure 3. Tectonic map of the South China and Indochina area.
Base map by Yanshin et al. (1966). Major earthquakes in 2012 to
2013 are shown. The BVG runs through the Yunnan-Guizhou
Anticline (coloured brown) and extends northward.
The Yunnan-Guizhou anticline extends further northward as the
East Asia Reflective Axial Belt (EARAB) redefined by Zhang and
Wang (1995) – earlier it was called the “North-South Trending
Belt” or “North-South Zone” by Yin et al. (1980), Wang (1985)
and Ma (1986), Fig. 4. The axial area of the EARAB is about 200
to 250 km wide.
___Zhang and Wang described it as a “natural crustal boundary”
situated between the western and eastern China crustal blocks;
the eastern part of the boundary belongs to the Circum-Pacific
mineral province, whereas the western part belongs to the
Tethys mineral province. The central axial belt has a mixture
of both mineral provinces.
___The axial belt is a notable earthquake belt too (Ma, 1989);
Zhang and Wang (1995) further remarked that earthquakes on the
central axial belt migrate isochronally and equidistantly from
south to north or north to south. This is an important
observation that implies the energy flow occurring under the
axial belt. East of the EARAB has higher heat flow and thinner
crust than the west as summarized in Meyerhoff et al. (2006).
The EARAB runs through the western wall of the Ordos Basin where
patches of Archean and Proterozoic crustal blocks are exposed
(Fig. 6). The bouguer gravity anomaly map (Fig. 5) shows a
large low-anomaly trough to the west of the EARAB. This is
supported by the magnetic anomaly map too (Fig. 6 right side
figure). The original structures along the EARAB are clearly
very early Proterozoic or more likely Archean (Meyerhoff et
al., 2006).
==Fig. 4. Tectonic mosaic map of China by Zhang and Wang (1995).
The BVG extends northward as the Yunnan-Guizhou Anticline and
the East Asia Reflective Axial Belt. Major earthquakes (M6.5+)
since 2010 and the Yunnan surge channel are superimposed.
Filled stars occurred from late 2012 to 2013. Surge channel by
Meyerhoff et al. (1992 and 1996).
==Figure 5. Bouguer anomaly map of China from Wang (1983). Note
the strong high- gravity anomaly in the border area with
Mongolia situated on the axis of the EARAB.
2) Mongolia and Russia
In Mongolia the axis of the EARAB extends northward. Near the
Chinese border, a gigantic copper-gold deposit, Oyu-Tolgoi
deposit (Fig. 6;
HTML http://ot.mn/en),
is situated on the eastern
boundary fault of the EARAB. The area is characterized by a
number of Permian intrusives as well as Tertiary extrusives,
clear
==Figure 6. Geanticlinal trend in China, Mongolia and Russia.
Left – geological map by Jatskevich et al., 2000, and right –
magnetic anomaly map by Korhonen et al., 2007. Archean and
Proterozoic distribution emphasized in the west of Ordos Basin.
AR=Archean, PR=Proterozoic.
evidence of prolonged magmatic activity (Michaelson, personal
communication, September 2013). Near Ulaan Baatar, a swarm of
Mesozoic granites which intruded the Middle-Upper Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks are indicated on the Yanshin et al. (1966)
geological map. Then, the EARAB runs through the western margin
of Lake Baikal and enters the Siberian Craton to reach the
Anabar Massif where the Archean is exposed (Fig. 6). Pavlenkova
(2005) illustrated the deep root of the Siberian Craton over
300 km. The EARAB seems to extend further north to the Severnaja
Zemlja in the Arctic Ocean.
4. Yunnan surge channel
Another discovery was the Yunnan surge channel (Meyerhoff et
al., 1992 and 1996) situated exactly on the axis of the
BVG-EARAB (Fig. 4). It is also related to orthogonal
structures, Ct4/Ct5 and Tt3/Tt4 structural belts as illustrated
in Figs. 4 and 8. Historically strong earthquakes have occurred
inside or around the surge channel (Fig. 8). Most of the major
quakes occurred in the NE-SW Ct4 tectonic zone which is a
deep-seated tectonic zone connecting with the Tan-lu Fault in
the North China and Okhotsk Sea, along which deep earthquakes
are nested. Further study is needed to clarify the relationship
between earthquake loci and distribution of low-velocity layers
in the mantle and the crust (Fig. 7); this will provide a
valuable insight into the energy flow along surge channels and
the tectonic processes causing earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions (Choi et al., in preparation).
==Figure 7. Yunnan surge channel (top right) by Meyerhoff et al.
(1992 and 1996): kobergen (top – A; Wang and Chu, 1988), and
seismotomographic sections (B and C; Liu et al., 1989) showing
low-velocity layers. See Fig. 8 for details of geologic
structure. The kobergen has been uplifting very actively in
Cenozoic time.
==Figure 8. Crustal wavy mosaic structure (Zhang and Wang,
1995), surge channel (Meyerhoff et al., 1992 and 1996), and
East Asia Reflective Axial Belt. See Fig. 7 for
seismotomographic sections.
Strong earthquakes with magnitude 6.5 or greater since 1973 are
also shown. The August 2013 M5.8 quake in the northernmost
Yunnan is indicated too. Circled stars are earthquakes occurred
in late 2012 to 2013. Note five strong quakes that occurred in
a single year, 1976 (filled red star) on the Ct4 tectonic zone.
1976 was the bottom cycle year between solar cycles 20 and 21.
5. N-S American Geanticline
The author (1999) wrote about the South American Geanticlinal
trend characterized by Archean cores and emphasized their
structural continuation into oceanic areas: the Caribbean and
Gulf of Mexico in the north, and the Rio Grande Ridge, South
Atlantic Ocean, in the south. The latter has been proved by
dredging and submersible observation on the Rio Grande Ridge,
as reported in the last issue of NCGT Journal (v. 1, no. 2, p.
2).
___The northern extension of the South American Geanticline is
confirmed by the Caribbean dome (Choi, 2010). The Gulf of
Mexico is a Pennsylvanian thermal dome that has collapsed since
the Permian, according to Pratsch (2008 and 2010).
The northern extension into the North American continent can be
placed in the collapsed basin areas (Fig. 6): N-S troughs
surrounded by the Ordovician and younger strata in the southern
part of the continent or the United States.
The distribution of Paleozoic units in the region suggests that
the collapsed structure was formed after the deposition of the
Ordovician and prior to the Silurian. In the area of the
Canadian Shield, the axial collapse may have occurred prior to
the Ordovician. It is noteworthy that the Cambrian units are
almost missing in the Shield, implying a subaerial environment
during the Cambrian. The distribution of Proterozoic rocks
suggests that the incipient axial depression formed in the
Early Proterozoic, and the depression became most distinctive
prior to the Ordovician.
To summarize the above, the axis of the North American
Geanticline can be placed in the N-S trending axial area of the
Canadian Shield which has formed basins since the Proterozoic
to Early Paleozoic as seen in Fig. 9.
==Figure 9. Global geanticlinal trends superimposed on the
magnetic map by Korhonen et al., 2007. They are antipodal to
each other.
6. Discussion
The presence of a global-scale geanticlinal structure stretching
from the South Pacific to Siberia, or the South Pacific-Siberia
Geanticline (SPSG) is of particular significance and has wide
ramifications in constraining the geodynamic history of the
Earth. The Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline (BVG), the southern
segment of the SPSG, is characterized by active rise in
Cenozoic time (Ollier and Pain, 1980 for example), which
simultaneously has been subject to oceanization that resulted
in active subsidence to form insular and oceanic basins.
___The BVG is considered the trunk conduit for thermal energy
transmigration from the superplume under the Fiji-Tonga-Vanuatu
region to the north, Southeast Asia, China, and the western
Pacific margins (Tsunoda et al., 2013).
Detailed tomographic mapping of low-velocity layers along the
BVG is required to clarify the actual mechanism of thermal
transfer along the low-velocity layers.
Another interesting fact is that the tectonic position of the
Yunnan surge channel situated at the junction of SPSG and other
two orthogonal fracture systems.
___Active energy release through the low-velocity layers at
structural culminations or junctions of deep fracture systems
can be regarded as an incipient stage of the oceanization
process
The antipodal relation between the SPSG and the N-S American
Geanticlines is of special interest. This intriguing tectonic
relationship must be investigated. Obviously they have affected
the tectonic development of the Earth throughout the
Proterozoic to the Phanerozoic.
___From a historical perspective, the area of the Yunnan surge
channel coincides with the Permian Emeishan Large Igneous
Province (Fig. 10; Ukstins-Peate and Bryan, 2008), suggesting
that the Yunnan surge channel has a long history of magmatic
activity since at least the Permian.
On the basis of extensive literature search and study, Meyerhoff
et al. (2006) concluded the most intense surge-channel activity
in the Red River channel was between late Proterozoic and Late
Triassic time. This is applicable to the northern segment of
the SPSG in Mongolia where numerous Permian to Mesozoic
intrusives with Tertiary extrusives, as stated earlier.
==Figure 10. Permian Emeishan volcanic deposits. Ukstins-Peate
and Bryan, 2008. The inner zone is included in the present-day
surge channel.
As seen in Figs. 4, 8 and 9, the SPSG is not affected by NE and
NW orthogonal structures which disturb Proterozoic structures.
Because the former involves Archean basements, the Geanticline
was formed earlier than the formation of orthogonal structures
(Fig. 6). This is applicable to the N-S American Geanticline
too.
___These facts suggest that the Geanticlines were formed in the
Archean, probably when the Earth’s surface was still hot and
prior to the cooling which led to the formation of the
pervasive orthogonal structure in the Proterozoic.
7. Conclusions
This paper described one of the most outstanding geological
structures seen at the Earth’s surface; a global-scale,
deep-rooted geanticlinal structure extending from the South
Pacific to the Siberian Craton. It was formed in the Archean
and, together with the antipodal N-S American Geanticline,
undoubtedly affected the structural and magmatic development of
the Earth. Together they place constraints on global tectonic
models. The Yunnan surge channel sits on the axis of the
Geanticline.
___It is one of the most active surge channels today,
characterized by strong energy discharge (earthquakes) and
active rise in the Cenozoic. These activities can be regarded
as the early stage of the oceanization process. The existence of
such large-scale, deep-rooted, Archean-origin geological
structures on opposite sides of the globe, both without large
horizontal dislocation, means that no large-scale horizontal
movement of the crust and mantle as claimed by plate tectonics
has occurred since Proterozoic to Cenozoic time.
Acknowledgements: The author’s sincere thanks are offered to;
Chris Pratsch for geology the Gulf of Mexico, Nina Pavlenkova
for geological information about the Siberian Craton, and Per
Michaelson of Nordic Geological Solutions for Mongolian and
Chinese geology and mineral deposits as well as valuable general
comment. The author’s thanks are extended to David Pratt for
English editing.
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-----
Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline and the tectonic framework of
Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, Dong R. CHOI…….….18
18 New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 42, March,
2007 BORNEO-VANUATU GEANTICLINE AND THE TECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE INDIAN OCEAN
Dong R. CHOI
Raax Australia Pty Ltd
6 Mann Place, Higgins, ACT 2615, Australia
raax@ozemail.com.au; www.raax.com.au
Abstract: Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline (BVG) is a NW-SE trending
deep-mantle high in SE Asia and the western Pacific. In
combination with the perpendicular NE-SW linear trend,
represented by the Laurantian-2 Trend, it has determined the
tectonic framework and paleogeographic development of the
region. SE Asia is positioned at the junction of these two
trends and another global lineament Tethyan-1 Trend; it is
currently tectonically one of the most active regions in the
world mainly due to the rapid subsidence of the Indian and
Pacific Oceans along a NE-SW block developed between the
Laurentian-2 Trend and the relatively stable
Kerguellen-Australia- Hawaii block.
Keywords: Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline, Lauratian-2 Trend,
Kerguellen-Australia- Hawaii block, SE Asia, Indian Ocean
Introduction
In one of recent papers, I described a major NW-SE trending deep
mantle high structure extending from SE Asia to the Western
Pacific (Fig. 1; Choi, 2005). During the study of this
outstanding tectonic feature, I came to realize that this
structural high is one of the most active and fundamental
tectonic features on the globe, and is strongly related to the
makings of the tectonic framework of SE Asia and the Indian
Ocean. Here I am going to briefly describe some of the
highlights of my ongoing study.
1. Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline
This arcuate mantle high structural trend (Fig. 1; Choi, 2005)
develops in the oceanic areas to the north and east of the
Australian continent, stretching in NW- SE direction from north
of New Zealand (Kermadec Islands), through Vanuatu, New Guinea
and Borneo, to Indochina, with a total length around 10,000 km
and a width 3,000 km. Here I name this trend, Borneo-Vanuatu
Geanticline (BVG). It is clearly defined by free-air gravity
data (to degree 10) which is considered to show the density
contrast from the surface to the core-mantle boundary, 2,900 km
(Circum- Pacific Council, 1985). This mantle high sits on a
high-velocity anomaly zone in the deep mantle tomographic image
by Fukano et al. (1994; Fig. 2). Undoubtedly the Geanticline is
deep rooted, reaching the core-mantle boundary. The gravity
peaks are situated in the North and South Fiji basins, New
Guinea and Borneo: the axial area is characterized by high heat
flow, especially in the Fiji Basins (Tuezov and Lipina, 1988),
mantle-origin ultramafic or ophiolitic rocks (New Guinea Island
and Banda Sea), and Precambrian-Lower Paleozoic rocks or
granite (Borneo).
___The BVG runs locally parallel with one of the global
lineaments, Tethyan-1 (T-1) Trend by O’Driscoll (1980 and 1992;
Figs. 2 and 4), but on the whole, it runs N40- 50W (= N40W
orientation of De Kalb, 1990). Interestingly, the distribution
of the 300-km seismic discontinuity in the mantle in the
western Pacific region (Williams and Revenaugh, 2005; Fig. 3)
is almost identical with that of the BVG. This coincidence
strongly suggests that the discontinuity is related to the
raised mantle structure,
but not to ancient subducted oceanic crusts entrained in Earth’s
mantle, as Williams and Revenaugh speculate. However, apart
from their tectonic interpretation, their conclusion based on
geochemical analysis that the discontinuity is generated by
SiO2-stishovite formation in an eclogitic assemblage is worthy
of note in considering the upper mantle processes under the
mantle high block. The northern extension of the BVG is not
clear, but patches of this seismic discontinuity in the Western
Siberian Platform make it tempting to connect the BVG to that
region at least at the shallow mantle level.
==Figure 1. Free air gravity to degree 10 around the Australian
continent (Circum- Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral
Resources, 1985) with the Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline
superimposed New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no.
42, March, 2007 19
==Figure 2. Mantle tomography between 700 and 1700 km by Fukao
et al. (1994) and Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline. Also O’Driscoll’s
global lineaments are added. Modified from Choi (2005). The
Geanticline is situated in the high-velocity anomaly area. A =
Tan-Lu – Kamchatka Tectonic Zone, B = Susong-chon – Lake Biwa –
Mariana Islands T.Z., C = Shan Boundary – West Malaysia – Java
Sea T.Z., D = New Zealand – Fiji T.Z., E= West Brazilian Shied
T.Z.
2. Relation to the tectonic framework of SE Asia and the Indian
Ocean.
Now let’s examine the Geanticline on a global scale. I
superimposed the BVG on a gravity anomaly map generated by the
DEOS program (www.deos.tudelft.nl/altim/atlas) and global
lineaments in Figs. 4 and 5.
As can be seen on Fig. 4, the Geanticline is parallel with the
Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge (Carlsberg - Mid-Indian - SE Indian
Ridges). Some rudimentary parallelism is also seen in the
Kerguellen – Madagascar Ridge trend in the southern Indian
Ocean. Also parallel is the Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Sea Mount
trend. A very distinctive, broad (3,000 km) gravity-low anomaly
zone lies between the BVG and the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge in the
eastern Indian Ocean. This low gravity zone as a whole extends
from India, crossing Australia, to the South Pacific. This zone
had formed paleolands until Jurassic (Jatskevich, 2000; Blot
and Choi, 2006; Choi, 2006; Figs. 5 and 6), but subsided at the
end of Jurassic. This is evidenced by the extensive development
of Cretaceous sedimentary basins in this gravity-low zone which
forms a flat deep-sea plain, 5,000 to 7,000 meters deep (Fig.
6).
The BVG is perpendicularly crossed by another set of lineaments
– represented by Lauratian-2 (L-2) Trend (Figs. 4 and 5), which
is roughly N50E in the predominant direction (= N50E
orientation of De Kalb, 1990). The L-2 Trend is situated roughly
at the boundary between the northern continental and the
southern oceanic blocks. ___The latter, about 3,000 km wide,
started to subside at the end of the Jurassic, and the
subsidence is still actively progressing in the Cenozoic.
The 2004 Boxing Day earthquake in northern Sumatra occurred on
this line (Figs. 5). The recent spates of large earthquakes
(Blot and Choi, 2006) as well as the continuing mud volcano
eruptions (United Nations, 2006) in Indonesia are indications
that the strong stress accumulation along ridges is mainly due
to the active subsidence of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific
margins coupled with deep energy discharge from the BVG.
___The subsided zone south of the L-2 Trend has a structural
high block which was shown in one of my previous papers (Blot
and Choi, 2006; Fig. 5).
Note this structural high stretching from the SW Indian
Ridge-north Kerguellen Plateau to Sumatra is slightly oblique
to the L-2 Trend and controlled the distribution of the
Cretaceous sedimentary basins in the eastern Indian Ocean
(Figs. 5 & 7). Of special interest is the locality of the
Jura-type Indoysian fold belt discussed by Wezel (1988): It is
situated near or on the L-2 Trend between Sri Lanka and Ninety
East Ridge. Considering the geologic profiles coupled with thick
sediments in the north (Bengal fan), the region is undoubtedly
of economic interest for industry. There is another NE-SW
trending crustal block (4,000 km wide) stretching from
Kerguellen Plateau through Australia and Hawaii to the NW coast
of USA (Fig. 4). This is a relatively stable block without deep
trenches (Choi, 2005).
3. Summary
The BVG is a deep-mantle-rooted structure and has helped to
frame the tectonics of SE Asia and the Indian Ocean.
___The recent extremely intense tectonic activities in the
Indonesian region can be explained by processes occurring under
the BVG and its perpendicular blocks related to the L-2 Trend
which is causing active subsidence in both the Pacific and the
Indian Ocean sectors. All geological and geophysical data
clearly show that a large part of the Indian Ocean had formed
paleolands until the Jurassic to Cretaceous, that the
composition of the “oceanic crust” is continental (Shipboard
Scientific Party, 1989; Jatskevich, 2000; Blot and Choi, 2006;
Seychelles National Oil Company, 2006, Fig. 9; Vassiliev and
Yano, 2006), and that the mid-Indian Ocean ridges finally
submerged only in the Neogene to Quaternary time.
A correct understanding of tectonics and geological development
of SE Asia and the Indian Ocean is essential in mineral
resources exploration as well as in scientific prediction of
natural disasters such as earthquakes. There is an urgent need
for Jatskevich’s Geological Map of the World to be updated and
for paleogeograhic maps of the study areas throughout the
Phanerozoic to be compiled by a multidisciplinary team of
scientists from all surrounding countries. I hope the current
short paper will become a first step in this direction. 20
==Figure 3. Distribution of the 300 km seismic discontinuity by
Williams and Revenaugh (2005). They speculate that the
distribution indicates the residue of ancient subducted oceanic
crusts within the upper mantle. The superimposed red line is
the Borneo-Vanuatu Geanticline. Obviously the seismic
discontinuity has something to do with the mantle high
structure. Compare this with tomography in Fig. 2 which shows
the state of the mantle at much deeper section. Recapture of
this figure by permission from Geological Society of America.
==Figure 4. Gravity anomaly map (equi rectangular) with major
global linear trends superimposed. M-L Line =
Mediterranean-Lake Baikal Tectonic Line (new name). SE Asia is
positioned at the junction of BVG, Lauratian-2 Trend and the
Tethyan-1 Trend; and the Mediterranean Sea Tethyan-1 Trend and
M-L Line.
___Note parallelism among BVG, Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge,
Keguellen-Madagascar trend and Hawaii-Emperor Sea Mount chain
(pink lines).
Acknowledgement: I thank J. Hutabarat of Indonesia for
information about mud volcano in Java, Howard De Kalb for
lineament data, and T. Yano for information on continental
rocks in the Indian Ocean. Patrick Joseph of Seychelles National
Oil Company kindly provided the author with exploration data of
the Seychelles Plateau. Discussion with Vadim Anfiloff was
helpful. David Pratt’s editorial review greatly improved the
quality of this paper.
References cited
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earthquake on July 17, 2006 and its tectonic perspective. NCGT
Newsletter, no. 40, p. 19-26.
Choi, D.R., 2005. Deep earthquakes and deep-seated tectonic
zones: A new interpretation of the Wadati-Benioff Zone.
Boll. Soc. Geol. It., Vol. Spec. n. 5, p. 79-118.
Choi, D.R., 2006. Where is subduction under the Indonesian Arc?
NCGT Newsletter, no. 39, p. 2-11.
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156p.
Fukao, Y., Maruyama, S., Obayashi, M. and Inoue, H., 1994.
Geologic implication of the whole mantle P-wave tomography.
Jour. Geol. Soc. Japan, v. 100, no. 4-23.
Jatskevich, B.A. (ed.), 2000. Geological map of the world.
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Meyerhoff, A.A. and Meyerhoff, H.A., 1974. Tests of plate
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Dordrecht.
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Tuezov, I.K. and Lipina, E.N., 1988. Heat flow map of the
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Khabarovsk. 1:10,000,000 scale with an explanatory note by
Tuezov, I.K., 33p.
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East Java, Indonesia. UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit. 52p.
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discovered in the ocean floors. The Journal of Science
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Wezel, F.-C., 1988. A young Jura-type fold belt within the
central Indian Ocean? Bollettino di Oceanologia Teorica ed
Applicata, v. 6, no. 2, p. 75-90.
Willimas, Q. and Revenaugh, J., 2005. Ancient subduction, mantle
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#Post#: 153--------------------------------------------------
NCGT 45 LITH.EV.
By: Admin Date: March 2, 2017, 6:08 am
---------------------------------------------------------
34 New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 45,
December, 2007
A NEW HYPOTHESIS FOR EARTH LITHOSPHERE EVOLUTION James G. A.
CROLL Professor of Civil Engineering University College London,
London WC1 E 6BT, England j.croll@ucl.ac.uk
ABSTRACT: The past 50 years have seen a profound shift in the
modelling of the processes believed to have shaped the
continental and oceanic crust of our planet, with Plate
Tectonics (PT) now providing an almost universally accepted
paradigm. There are however, increasingly acknowledged problems
with the PT model. This paper briefly summarises what appear to
be some of the more substantial areas of weakness of PT. It
then outlines a new hypothetical model that seemingly overcomes
these weaknesses.
___It argues that long period fluctuations in the levels of
insolation energy, similar to those thought to be responsible
for the ice ages, are directly and indirectly the cause of
major changes in the thermal conditions within the crust.
Widespread changes in the disposition of surface water and ice
result in temporal and spatial variations in the insulation to
both the inward flow of solar radiation energy and particularly
the outward flow of geothermal energy. The results are
significant fluctuations in the thermal conditions within the
crust, with the associated restraints to lateral expansion and
contraction inducing massive ternations of tension and
compression loading. This cycle of thermal loading is suggested
to act as a form of tectonic pump, driving the many processes
currently explained by PT.
Most of the known characteristics of the Earth’s lithosphere can
be explained by this dynamic model, and, significantly, it will
be demonstrated how this new model is capable of resolving many
paradoxes of PT and especially might help to explain the
processes that cause long term vertical movement of both
continental and ocean crust.
Keywords: contraction, expansion, lithosphere, tectonic forces,
thermal energy, lithosphere, dynamics
BACKGROUND
From the author’s perspective, outwith [without?] the earth
sciences, it would appear that plate tectonics (PT) has become
the almost universally accepted paradigm. It seems to explain
what it was in the past that shaped the Earth’s crust and
presently continues to drive the dynamic processes determining
the relationships between the continental land masses and the
oceans. To pick up virtually any textbook underpinning
curricula in the earth sciences around the world there seems to
be a consistent and it has to be said compelling model being
promulgated (see for example: McLeish, 1992; Skinner and Porter,
1995; Spencer, 1977; Wicarder and Monroe, 1999). Even if there
is still lack of clarity and agreement as to what is actually
providing the driving force, there appears to be relatively few
who question the basic validity of the PT model. At first sight
the growing body of evidence does seem to be overwhelming in
support of the PT model, as illustrated by for example the very
easy to read and excellent summary of the evidence by Sullivan
(1991). The topological fits between the continental shelves on
opposing sides of the various oceans would seem to be too close
for pure chance. That the sediments immediately above the first
basalt layers get older as the distances from the mid-oceanic
“spreading zone” increase, strongly supports the idea of new
ocean crust being formed from an upwelling of magma into the
fissures being created when the “plates” are torn apart.
Evidence of matching bands of new crust either side of the
“spreading zone”, located in time by changes in magnetic
signatures that have been locked-in when the magma solidified,
is by many considered the pivotal evidence that the “plates”
are being prised apart to allow the creation of new mid-ocean
crust. The concentrations of seismic and volcanic activity
around the spreading zones and their complementary “subduction
zones”, where the newer ocean crust is thought to be pushed
beneath the relatively older continental crust, is consistent
with the fundamental ideas of PT. So too are the some of the
matches in certain floral and faunal fossil remains within the
continental crusts on opposing sides of oceans, believed to have
once formed part of a larger continental land mass split
asunder by the processes of PT. In some cases there are even
matches in existing living species on continents too far apart
to have allowed natural spreading. All of this and much other
carefully gathered evidence provide a model that is beguiling
in its simplicity and convincing in its consistency. And yet
there are increasingly recognised factors that do not seem to
fit into this apparently self-consistent and compelling model.
In the following some of the serious geological evidence that
does not appear to fit in with the basic ideas of PT will be
briefly summarised. This critique has relied upon the excellent
summaries of critics such as Meyerhoff et al. (1996). It has
also been bolstered by the increasing body of evidence being
presented by Choi, Dickins, Smoot et al. in the publication New
Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter (NCGT), an
e-publication explicitly set-up to allow the airing of evidence
that is contrary to the ideas of plate tectonics and which it
seems has too often been suppressed by the dominant
publications in the field. Pratt (2000) has provided an easy to
read and much more extensive summary of much of this contrary
evidence. Some of the alternative explanations that have been
put forward for the source of energy required to drive the
dynamic processes that have so clearly influenced the evolution
of the Earth’s crust will also be briefly touched upon. However,
the main purpose of this note is to put forward an alternative
model for the processes that might in the past have been at
work and which continue to shape the Earth’s crust. It will be
argued that this new model is not only able to account for most
of the processes and observations currently cited as evidence
in support of PT but is also seemingly able to overcome most of
its identified serious deficiencies.
___In particular, this new model will be demonstrated to be
consistent with the evidence that vertical crustal motions are
and have been as critical as horizontal motions in shaping our
planet. Furthermore, the horizontal movements required for this
new explanation are considerably less than those needed for PT.
At temporal and spatial scales many orders less it will be
suggested that similar dynamic processes continue to form
periglacial environments both on Earth and some of the other
planets and their satellites within the solar system.
SOME PROBLEMS WITH PLATE TECTONICS
Reassembling the continental jigsaw puzzle: One of the factors
that first excited attention to the possibility of continental
drift, and the rifting apart of early super-continents to form
the present disposition of land masses, was the remarkably
close fit that appears to exist between the shapes of the
eastern seaboard of the Americas and the western coastline of
Africa and Europe. Sophisticated topological fits have been
proposed, vast numbers of papers written and conferences have
been dedicated to the task of perfecting the levels of fit
achieved by these models. Sceptics have on the other hand
questioned many aspects of these fits (Voisey, 1958).
___It would seem that although there is strong geological
evidence for plate movements of up to a few hundred kilometers
(Jeffreys, 1976) there is little to support the notion that the
crustal plates have moved upwards of 9000 km as required by PT.
There are it appears also rather too many inconsistencies in the
various fits for this evidence to be taken as definitive proof
of PT. As highlighted by Meyerhoff et al. (1974), there are at
least 3.5 million square kilometres that fail to fit in with
the Bullard et al. (1965) computer generated emergence of the
Americas, Africa and Europe from the super continent of Pangaea.
It seems there are similar difficulties arising from the
supposed break-up of Gondwanaland in the southern hemisphere,
as postulated by Smith and Hallam (1970) and Dietz and Holden
(1970), to account for the formation of the southern land
masses of the Antarctic, Australia and the highly mobile India.
India is supposed to have dislodged itself from Gonwanaland and
been propelled on a 9000 km northward journey to collide with
the Asian plate with such force as to form the Himalayan
mountain range. It appears however, there is very strong
geological and palaeontological evidence that India has been an
integral part of Asia well before its hypothesised northward
journey from Antarctica and Australia (Chatterjee et al., 1986;
Ahmad, 1990; Meyerhoff et al., 1991) with which it shares very
little floral and faunal similarities.Indeed, as Pratt (2000)
so eloquently puts it, “the supposed ‘flight of India’ is no
more than a flight of fancy”. ___Biogeographic boundaries based
upon floral and faunal distributions that would follow from PT
models are often in strong contradiction with those actually
existing. Indeed, it would appear that the known
palaeontological data on the distribution of fossils is rather
more consistent with current distributions of continental land
mass than those upon which PT is predicated (Smiley, 1992).
In a major global study based upon floral and faunal
distributions, Meyerhoff et al. (1996) concluded that current
biogeographical boundaries are seriously out of step with the
boundaries that would be anticipated from plate tectonic models.
They comment that “what is puzzling is that such major
inconsistencies between plate tectonic postulates and field
data, involving as they do boundaries that extend for thousands
of kilometers, are permitted to stand unnoticed, unacknowledged,
and unstudied”. It seems that all is not as simple as is often
suggested.
Ocean sediment age: A fundamental notion in PT is that of
sea-floor spreading. In this process new oceanic crust is
created around the oceanic ridges, or “spreading zones”, where
molten material from the Earth’s interior is extruded up into
fissures caused by the tearing apart of the plates. This new
crust is characterised as gradually moving across the ocean
floor, like a “conveyor belt”, until it comes into contact with
the relatively thicker continental crust.
___At these collision zones the relatively thinner oceanic crust
is said to be forced down into trenches, “subduction zones”,
where the newer oceanic crust is lost back into the molten
interior.
If these notions are correct then one would anticipate the
sedimentary layers deposited upon this new ocean crust to
increase in age the further one moves away from the spreading
zone. Very extensive deep sea drilling programmes have been
undertaken to test this hypothesis, with seemingly great
success. It was found in a NSF study (1969-73) that the ages of
sediments immediately overlying the first basalt rock, supposed
to be the new ocean crust being forced out from the spreading
zone, do indeed display a gradual increase in age as the
distance from the spreading zone increases.
___Once again, however, there appear to be grounds for supposing
that the evidence on sea-floor geology has been chosen
selectively to support the hypotheses of PT. Smoot et al.
(1995) have demonstrated that most of the published charts
showing the ocean floors have been drafted using the data that
supports the ideas of PT. They suggest that much of the
accurate information currently available has been ignored
because it is at odds with the notions of PT. For example, they
show that from side-scanning radar images there is evidence
that the mid-oceanic ridges are cut with thousands of long and
straight, ridge parallel, fissures and fractures that have
older crustal rock between them. There are also numerous areas
in all the oceans of the world where seabed rock, of
continental origin and up to 3.74 Ga in age, are located where
PT would suggest the rock should be of an age at least 2 orders
of magnitude younger (Timofeyev, 1992; Udintsev, 1996). Dickins
et al. (1992) undertook a detailed survey of the evidence
relating to the existence of large continental crust within the
present oceans, and concluded that “we are surprised and
concerned for the objectivity of science that such data should
be overlooked or ignored”. There are also strong and well
founded suspicions that had the deep sea drilling boreholes
been able to penetrate through the first layers of basalt,
older sedimentary layers would be found to overlay possibly even
older horizontal layers of basalt.
On the basis of the above cited survey, Dickins et al. (1992)
opined that “there is a vast need for future Ocean Drilling
Program initiatives to drill below the base of the basaltic
floor crust to confirm the real composition of what is currently
designated oceanic crust”. As will be argued later there are
other possibly more convincing models for how these finds on
sedimentary age could be explained.
Magnetic anomaly evidence: It has been claimed that stripes of
newly formed oceanic crust roughly parallel to the spreading
zones, display reversals in magnetic polarity that are
reasonably symmetrical about the oceanic ridges (Sullivan,
1991). These magnetic signatures are believed to have been
captured when the molten magma being extruded into the
spreading zone solidified. For some curious reason these newly
created widths of magnetised rock are believed to be split into
equal halves and propelled off in opposite directions to create
bands of magnetised rock that display symmetry about the
spreading zones. It has been pointed out that the evidence of
this symmetry and chronology of spreading, supporting PT, is
rather less convincing than is sometimes implied. The
licourice-allsort appearance of some of the text book summaries
of this evidence fails to indicate the many serious anomalies.
___Magnetic stripes of magma intrusions display very imperfect
symmetry, and indeed often occur in sequences that do not
represent a linear time-wise evolution (Meyerhoff et al.,
1974). The stripes often occur within seabed rock that is very
much older and sometimes of continental origins (Grant, 1980;
Choi et al., 1992), and furthermore these stripes have been
shown to display anisotropy with depth. It would appear that
here too much of the data is open to alternative explanations.
___Evidence of tension and compression: At many locations within
the Earth’s crust there is evidence of both tensile and
compressive actions having occurred at different times
(Storetvedt, 1997). This is perhaps particularly in evidence at
the mid-ocean “spreading zones” where the crust is supposed to
be torn apart by a tension field normal to the stripe of new
crust being formed by the intrusion of magma into the fissures.
As previously observed these fissures occur in bands that are
broadly parallel to the mid-oceanic ridge. And yet the existence
of a ridge or mid oceanic mountain ranges, sometimes involving
folded sedimentary deposits, is strongly suggestive of a
compression field action normal to the ridge, and Antipov et
al. (1990) have suggested that thrust faults adjacent to the
mid-Atlantic ridge are more likely to have been caused by
compression rather than tension. Fracture patterns are also
suggestive of compression related failures in the vicinity of
the spreading zone. Zoback et al. (1989) demonstrated that
earthquake data at midoceanic ridges is more strongly
supportive of compression action than as supposed by PT from
tension behaviour. It would appear that alternations of both
tension and compression actions are experienced in locations
where PT would indicate steadily developing tensile failure.
Vertical tectonics: It should not take long for even an
untrained geologist to become concerned about the fact
that[/color]
___many of the highest continental mountain ranges and some of
the most extensive continental plateaus are formed from
sedimentary rock that was once laid down at the bottom of an
ocean floor.
Often these vast regions are remote from any supposed plate
boundaries or are within the interiors of continental crust
(Beloussov, 1990; Chekunov et al., 1990). Equally, as observed
above considerable areas of deep ocean floor are composed of
rock whose palaeontological evidence alone indicates that it
once formed part of a continental land mass (Spencer, 1977). PT
appears to have only partially addressed these issues and
seemingly would be hard pushed to provide an explanation for
much of this very clear geological reality.
___That marine sediments and fossils can be found near the
highest peaks of the Himalayas or that shallow sediments and
even land based fossils can be recovered from the depths of
ocean crust, are difficult to reconcile with existing notions
that form part of PT (Spencer, 1977; Wezel, 1992). Explanations
based upon changes in sea level, believed to be brought about
by increased volumes of uplift at the mid-oceanic ridges, has
been suggested by an acknowledged supporter of PT to be an
inadequate explanation, and that the scale of these movements
“fit poorly into plate tectonics” (van Andel, 1994).
SOME PAST EXPLANATIONS OF CRUSTAL DYNAMICS
There is convincing evidence that the Earth’s crust has
undergone periodic changes with timescales, both very long
measured in 100’s of Ma, and shorter measured in10’s or 100’s
Ka. Over the very long term continents would on a periodic basis
seem to sink to become ocean floors and ocean floors rise to
become new continents. How many such cycles have occurred
during the circa 4.5 Ga of the Earth’s existence and when
exactly a significant crust of the form we know it today
actually formed to make such movements possible, seem to be
largely unresolved. However, it appears conceivable that the
number of such very long-term cycles could be many. It also
seems clear that the PT model, dominated as it is by the
tangential motions of the crust, would find it difficult to
explain the occurrence of these very long-term vertical
tectonic cycles. Within these long-term geological cycles there
seem to be other shorter timescale processes at work. These
shorter period processes could be responsible for the
alternations between compressive and tensile actions occurring
within the crust. Before going on to outline a model that could
provide an explanation for this dynamical system, involving as
it appears to do both horizontal and vertical motions,
accompanied by both tensile and compressive actions, it may be
useful to consider some of the previously postulated
explanations, other than PT, that have been advanced for the
development of the Earth’s crust as we know it today. One major
differentiation of Earth models is between those that take the
line that what we see today has been the result of a gradual
evolution in which the processes at work in the past should be
evident from those that are at work today. This so called
“uniformist” model contrasts with those that see the evolution
in terms of more discrete and often cataclysmic changes. Among
the latter were those that tried to explain the Earth as we find
it today in terms of a Biblical flood. This idea, prevalent in
the 18th and early 19th C, incorporated the growing recognition
that the match between the coastlines of the Americas and
Africa/Europe was due to a rifting apart of the Atlantic
following the flood referred to in the Bible. Others have
suggested that the spin-off of the Moon left a great hole in
what is now the Pacific Ocean with the great void so created
being filled by the splitting apart of Americas and
Europe/Africa to form the Atlantic Ocean (this view is
associated with George Darwin nephew of Charles). Various other
ideas have included the colliding or near colliding bodies,
taking different forms but including the idea that the gravity
field generated by the Earth’s capture of the Moon developed at
an early stage the forces needed to drag the continents towards
the equator, creating enormous mountain building forces
(Taylor, 1910). A variant was the idea that the close approach
of Venus created the gravity field needed to drag the Moon from
the Earth (Baker, 1914), with other orbital interactions being
elaborated by Velikovsky (1950). In the former, more
traditional, uniformist, view the models have included the
shrinkage (contraction) model relying upon the idea that the
shrinkage of the Earth’s interior against the crust created the
compression forces needed to build mountains. This idea appears
to have been first put forward by Newton (1681) using the
analogy of the wrinkling of the skin of an ageing apple (must
have come a few days after his gravity observations from the
falling apple!). Jeffreys (1976) too has argued that since its
inception the Earth as a whole has contracted while cooling.
These models fail to account for the clear evidence that in
certain places and during some periods, the crust has been and
continues to be torn apart by tensile actions. To accommodate
the very clear evidence of tensile stretching action, and at the
other extreme, the expansion model advocates that the tearing
apart of the oceans has been the result of a massive increase
in the diameter. Carey (1958) argued that the diameter of the
Earth could have been increased by as much as 100%. How these
expansions occurred has been explained in a number of ways. It
has been suggested that this expansion could have been caused
by changes in phase or molecular composition of the Earth’s
matter to less densely packed molecules, or on a more modest
level through a gradual decline in the strength of the gravity
force (Dicke, 1962). Each of these uniformist models fail to
account for the massive compressions needed to either explain
upward folding and mountain building or the downward folding to
form ocean trenches. None of the models appear to be able to
account for strong spatial and temporal evidence of periodic
cycles of tension and compression being involved. An attempt to
reconcile the clear evidence of periods of tension and other
periods of compression, the mixed shrinkage and expansion,
recognises that during the earliest period of the Earth’s
formation the largely gaseous materials gradually changed phase
to become liquid and some to eventually become solid. This
gradual compaction of the molecules would have been accompanied
by a massive decrease in the diameter of the Earth. When later
these dense liquids and solids were broken-down into less
compact molecular forms the volume would once again be
increased. This latter period would cover the formation of the
Earth’s crust, during which the breakdown in molecular forms
would have started to produce the water that now forms such an
important ingredient in the dynamics of the Earth. This view
(see for example MacDonald, 1959) is attractive but is more
concerned with the period prior to the dynamic crust of present
interest. It would suggest however, that underlying any shorter
periodicities there may continue to be a gradual expansion
occurring as the average thickness of the crust and the
associated volumes of free water and other low density molecules
increase. Along similar lines the so called antimobilists
believe that the Earth’s crust has been shaped by cycles of
heating and cooling, causing expansion and contraction of the
land masses. They took the opposite view to the mobilists who
supported Wegener’s notions of continental plates in motion.
The concept of a pulsating earth has also been advocated by
Wezel (1992) and Dickins (2000).
___The truth, if and when found, will undoubtedly find that most
of these models contain elements required to explain what has
occurred.
It seems evident that certain phenomena are associated with
sudden and cataclysmic changes. It seems equally clear that
other phenomena have been the result of gradually emerging
processes. It is also very clear that whether one adopts a
steady state or a transient model, the evolution of the Earth’s
crust has been and remains a highly dynamical process. There is
strong evidence that at a given location the crust has at times
experienced tensile action and at others compression. This is
incompatible with either the uniformist view or many of the
prevailing notions of the nature of the Earth as a dynamical
system. There is also unquestionable evidence that the various
regions of the Earth’s crust have experienced, on a periodic
basis, major changes in vertical elevation, which is also at
odds with most of the past models including PT. What therefore
might be an alternative model that could explain all of the
essential processes known to have taken place and which
continue to take place in the shaping of the Earth’s crust?
A NEW MODEL OF CRUSTAL DYNAMICS
While it might at first sight seem of peripheral relevance to
the modelling of crustal dynamics, the following aims to
clarify how a fascination with the effects of solar induced
thermal cycles on the development of various surface
morphological features may provide an alternative dynamic model
of how some features of the earth’s crust have evolved.
Surface morphologies and solar cycles: Drying mud develops well
recognised crack polygonal forms, similar to those shown in
Figure 1. In this case the energy release associated with the
tension fields developed during the restrained shrinkage is
maximised by the development of the characteristic polygonal
forms. In a similar way the
==Figure 1. Polygonal crack patterns developed in drying mud.
cooling of asphalt pavements can result in the development of
characteristic polygonal crack networks, which often develop
into permanent forms of pavement failure. During any period of
cooling the asphalt layer will experience the build- up of
in-plane tensile stress as a result of the constraint to the
contraction that would otherwise occur. With asphalt being
relatively brittle at low temperatures this tensile energy is
commonly relieved by the development of polygonal crack
networks which serve to maximise the release of the stored
tensile energy. Any surface detritus entering the cracks will
mean that they will not be fully closed when the asphalt sheet
is heated, with the result that significant levels of
compressive stress develop. Over many cycles of heating and
cooling the asphalt under certain conditions is observed to
develop the well known and serious form of pavement failure
known as “alligator cracking” (Croll, 2006 & 2007c), like that
shown in Figure 2. A closely related thermal ratchet process is
widely recognised to be responsible for the development of
ice-wedge polygons in areas of permafrost both on Earth
(Lachenbruch, 1962; Mackay and Burn, 2002), and also on the
frozen regions of other planets and their satellites
(Yoshikawa, 2000). Figure 3 shows some examples of terrestrial
ice-wedge polygons in northern Canada. Just as for the asphalt
polygonal cracks, the seasonal lowering of temperature will be
associated with the development of tension stress fields within
the permafrost due to the restraint to the contraction wanting
to occur. With ice being
==Figure 2. Alligator cracking in asphalt pavement.
==Figure 3. Ice-wedge polygons in northern Canada.
weak in tension, patterns of fracture cracks will be generated
that maximise the release of stored energy. These cracks will
fill with moisture which will freeze so that upon warming the
expansion strains will be restrained and almost immediately
start developing compression stresses. The spatial scales of the
ice-wedge polygons reflect the depth to which the annual
seasonal thermal cycles penetrate into the frozen ground. Other
forms of periglacial morphologies, such as stone and rock
circles, polygons, nets, stripes, etc, see Figure 4, would
appear to be driven by closely related but usually shorter term
thermal cycles occurring within seasonally frozen ground or
even the surface layers that undergo circadian cycles of freeze-
thaw (Croll and Jones, 2006; Croll, 2008). (a) (b)
==Figure 4. Examples of (a) stone circles, and (b) stone
polygons.
Under certain circumstances an asphalt layer when constrained by
its interactions with its surroundings will when heated develop
characteristic uplift bulges, such as those shown in Figure 5.
Because during the warming phase the asphalt has relatively low
elastic-visco-plastic stiffness, the in-plane compression
induced uplift buckles will experience relatively high levels
of creep. On account of the higher elastic-visco-plastic
stiffness at low temperatures these uplift buckles will not be
fully recovered when the temperature drops. Each cycle of
increase and decrease in temperature above certain critical
thresholds could be expected to result in a further ratcheting
upward of the bulge deformation (Croll, 2005a & 2007b). It
would appear that closely related mechanics could be involved in
the initiation and growth of many other forms of periglacial
morphologies.
==Figure 5. Asphalt bulges caused by cyclic thermal loading.
Around the periphery of the ice-wedge polygons shown in Figure
3, can be seen raised ramparts that result from the compression
shoving accompanying the outward expansion during the heating
phase of the seasonal cycle. The possibility that the seasonal
thermal cycle could be contributing to the upward growth of
pingos in areas of recently aggrading permafrost, was first
discussed (Croll, 2004) in the context of theoretical
mechanics. Typical pingos are shown in Figure 6. The mechanics
for their growth as a result of seasonal thermal cycles, has
been elaborated
==Figure 6. A pair of pingos emerging from permafrost in
northern Canada.
(Croll, 2005b) and extended to other forms of seasonal and
perennial periglacial surface mound formations (Croll, 2006 &
2007a,d), some of which are shown in Figure 7.
___For each of these uplift bulge formations, the growth
mechanism relies upon the ice or ice rich ground being strong
in compression but weak in tension. Tension cracks formed when
the frozen ground contracts upon cooling will attract moisture
which will turn to ice. This means that like the ice-wedge
polygons the cracks will not be fully closed when the frozen
ground is warmed. Under certain conditions the significant
in-plane compression stresses associated with the restrained
thermal expansion will be sufficient to induce a form of
uplift, ratchet, and buckling.
This new view of how many surface morphologies develop is
suggested to provide a model, albeit on different spatial and
temporal scales, of some of the important long-term dynamical
processes at work within the Earth’s crust.
==Figure 7. Hummocks formed within peat.
Thermal cycle of Earth’s crust: Changes in the eccentricity of
the Earth’s orbit around the sun together with the inclination
and precession of the axis of spin relative to the orbital
plane, are regarded as the chief sources of the massive changes
in climate that have seen inter alia the periodic ice-ages. The
Croll- Milankovic model is widely regarded as a major source,
but by no means the only one, for the very large changes in
level of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface (Croll,
1864; Milankovic, 1920), and as will be suggested in the
following also responsible for associated large changes in
temperature gradient through the earth’s crust. While the
periodic ice ages over the past 2 Ma or so years are the most
obvious symptoms of this cyclic process there is considerable
evidence to suggest that similar cycles have been occurring,
possibly with even more extreme variations in temperature, for
very much longer than this. With periods of around Δ tp =
20 Ka for the cycle of changes in precession and Δ ti = 40
Ka for the cycle of inclination of the axis of spin, and around
Δ to = 110 Ka for the changes of eccentricity of the
elliptic orbit, the intensity of the temperature changes at a
given location on the earth’s surface are expected to show a
time dependence like that shown in Figure 8. It seems probable
that average surface temperature changes of up to 20oC at
periods of 20 to 110 Ka would penetrate deep into the Earth’s
crust. Increasing
==Figure 8. Typical variations of average Earth surface
temperatures.
the temperature through the earth’s crust will mean that the
rock wants to expand laterally. However, the crust is
restrained from lateral expansion by its interaction with the
relatively stiff inner mantle and core. The level of lateral,
or in-plane, compressive stress developed during the warming
cycle will of course depend upon the average temperature
increases and their profile within the crust. Similarly, high
tensile stress would develop during the cooling phase of the
thermal cycle. While direct changes in temperature due to
fluctuations of insolation may be significant, it is probable
that the indirect effects of these surface thermal cycles could
exert even greater changes to the thermal regime within the
crust. The changes in the disposition of surface water and ice
accompanying the thermal cycles are likely to have even more
profound effects. The proportion of incoming solar energy
reflected back into space will be greatly effected by the
build-up of surface snow and ice. Changes in sea level may alter
ocean currents and cause major changes in the geothermal energy
flux. Any associated build-up of continental ice sheets will
also cause major changes to the degree of thermal insulation to
the conduction of geothermal energy. These are likely to induce
even more significant changes in thermal conditions within the
earth’s crust. A sheet of continental ice will for example,
significantly lower the rate of geothermal energy flow through
the crust. This will be reflected by a lowering of the
geothermal gradient as suggested in Figure 9. Over a period of
time sufficient to re-establish thermal equilibrium this would
result in very considerable reductions in temperature, which
would become increasingly significant with depth. Alongside
these temperature reductions would be massive lateral tensile
stress fields building up as a result of the restraint to the
in-plane contractions wanting to occur. Even at the elevated
temperatures experienced at depth the relatively brittle nature
of the rock would be expected to result in considerable seismic
activity associated with the greater incidence of tensile and
shear fractures relieving this tensile energy build-up. Similar
effects could arise from any substantial changes in sea level.
With one of the most significant sources of geothermal heat
flow in the oceans arising from the convection processes
associated with ocean currents, any change in this convection
process will also be likely to affect the long term geothermal
gradients. Were a long term lowering of sea level to occur,
possibly as a result of ice build-up on the continental ice
sheets, then constrictions to the ocean convection currents
could result.
==Figure 9. Effects of increasing surface insulation on
geothermal heat flux and geothermal gradient, and the resulting
decreases in crustal temperature and associated development of
tensile stress.
Due to perhaps ocean freezing or the development of land bridges
any such constriction would severely reduce the flow of
geothermal energy. A lowering of the geothermal gradient
similar to that shown in Figure 9 would therefore be expected
to induce very substantial decreases in deep crust temperature,
with similar consequences for the build-up of tensile energy
especially in the lower crust. Melting of the ice sheets and an
associated rise of the sea level might be expected to have the
opposite effects. As suggested in Figure 10 the steepened
geothermal gradient occurring over very long time frames would
cause substantial increases in temperature, especially at lower
levels. Constraint of the expansions wanting to occur will
induce massive additional levels of in-plane compression stress.
This compressive energy would be expected to induce other forms
of failure such as crushing, folding, shearing and uplift of
the crust.
The effects of the thermal cycle: As suggested above long term
fluctuations in surface temperature, arising from Earth’s
interactions with the Sun, could as a result of the changes in
the disposition of water and ice be greatly magnified by the
interaction of these surface processes with the flow of
geothermal energy. Moderate levels of surface warming could
give rise to greatly magnified increases in temperature at
depth, resulting in massive build-ups of inplane compressive
stresses. Taking the rock of the crust to have a coefficient of
thermal expansion of α =12.5x10- 6m/m/oC, then an increase
in average surface temperature of say 20oC would if
unrestrained induce a tensile strain of 250x10-6. Over a
continental landmass of roughly circular shape, having an
in-plane radius of say a=3000 km, this unrestrained expansion
would give rise to an outward, in-plane, radial movement of 750
m. With similar outward movement of the adjacent crust a total
of 1.5 km of relative motion would be available for distorting
and crushing of the crust; significant potential for tectonic
activities in each thermal cycle. But as discussed above the
indirect effects of fluctuations of surface temperature could
be even greater. As an indication of just how large these
in-plane stresses and strains could be consider the effects of
an increase of 200oC at a particular level, deep within the
crust. Taking the rock at this level to have a coefficient of
thermal expansion α =12.5x10-6m/m/oC, then the increase
temperature of 200oC would, if unrestrained, induce a strain of
2.5x10-3. Again, over a continental landmass of roughly
circular shape, having an in-plane radius of a=3000 km, this
unrestrained expansion would give rise to an outward, in-plane,
radial movement of around 7.5 km. If the adjacent landmass is
being similarly deformed there would be a total relative
in-plane motion of 15 km available to fold,
==Figure 10. Effects of decreasing surface insulation on
geothermal heat flux and geothermal gradient, and the resulting
increases in crustal temperature and associated development of
compressive stress.
shear, or otherwise distort the earth’s crust when this crust is
thermally loaded during the heating or compression cycle. Such
distortions would undoubtedly occur selectively as will be
discussed later. They could certainly account for the
kinematics involved with upward folding or mountain building, or
downward folding into trenches, or the shearing of crustal
layers one over the other as appears to happen in many areas,
including ocean trenches or so called “subduction” zones. The
levels of distortion actually reached would in turn depend upon
the forces needed to fail the particular volume of crust,
whether by folding, shearing, or whatever. But with no failure
to relieve the compressive strain of 250x10-6, required at the
surface to restrain the outward expansion, or 2500x10-6 at
depth, a relatively hard rock having an elastic modulus of E =
40x10+3 MPa, will develop compressive stresses of between 10
MPa (1000 ton for every 1 square meter of rock) and 100 MPa
(10,000 ton for every 1 square meter of rock). While at the
surface these levels of stress may be lower than those needed
to crush the rock they could, when integrated over substantial
thickness, certainly be sufficient to induce various forms of
geometric failure such as folding and faulting. At lower levels
the stresses could easily be enough to contribute to the
crushing failure and other processes producing metamorphosis.
The differential straining with depth could also be responsible
for various forms of shear failure, particularly at relative
weak sedimentary layers. During the warm-up phase the
compressive related distortions and sudden releases of stored
energy would be associated with compressive related failure
modes, occurring when the strain build-up reaches the levels
required for failure to be induced; they could be expected to
be progressive and cumulative, and to occur at different
locations at different times over the entire period of the
warm-up. At the end of the warm-up period it might be
anticipated that the greater part of the compressive energy
will have been transferred into the distortions characterising
the various failure modes, whether they be mountain building,
crustal over-riding or downward folding to generate ocean
trenches. By the start of the next cooling period the crust
would consequently contain very little thermally derived
residual compressive stress. As the crust cools during the
cooling period it will want to contract. Being again prevented
from doing so by the effectively rigid inner core and mantle,
tensile stresses will be developed. This cooling period could
be termed the tension cycle. Reversing the above scoping
calculations, a drop in average temperature of 20oC will
produce tensile stresses of around 10 MPa, which even at the
surface would be sufficient to cause tensile cracking of the
rock. At lower levels the greatly increased drops of temperature
could open up massive fractures and rifts into which high
pressure magma would be intruded. It is likely that the tensile
fractures would be concentrated in those areas where the crust
is at its weakest. With oceanic crust being apparently so much
thinner than that of continental crust, at least in the present
phase of the dynamic tectonic cycle to be elaborated later, it
would be expected that most, but by no means all, of these
fractures would be located on the ocean floors. While the
dominant fractures might be anticipated to be largely
polygonal, in order that energy release should be maximized, it
is likely that the heterogeneity of the crust thickness will
see the fracture patterns concentrated within oceanic crust and
any weakened zones within the more massive continental crust.
HORIZONTAL TECTONICS
The periodic reversals of heating and cooling, and importantly
the associated compression and tension cycles, seem to be
consistent with the evidence upon which PT is predicated. With
periods of 20 Ka to 110 Ka the crust, particularly at depth,
will experience significant cycles of compression and tension.
Figure 11 provides a cartoon of a typical cycle of heating and
cooling. At the various times indicated in Figure 11(a), the
stress state and the nature of the expected failure within the
crust are shown in Figure 11(b). After a prolonged period of
cooling and allowing for the time lag for the cold thermal wave
to reach the lower crust, (1) the crust and especially the
areas of relative weakness on the ocean bed will experience
tensile fractures. Magma will be extruded into these fractures
and spill out onto the seabed, forming new basaltic crust.
Following the subsequent warming phase (2) the massive
compressions would in each cycle propagate the failures such as
folding and mountain building, or crustal over-riding and shear
faulting or downward folding at oceanic trenches or
“subduction” zones. At the end of the next cooling phase (3)
these compression failure distortions would not be reversed by
the development of tension forces. Instead, during the tensile
phase extensive cracking and rifting could again be expected
with, in many cases, molten magma being extruded into the
tensile fissures. These progressive alternations of horizontal
motion, driven by the thermal cycle, would for the same reason
as the motions involved in the development of say ice-wedge
polygons, result from the differential failures properties of
rock in compression and tension.
==Figure 11. Long term thermal cycles producing cycles of
crustal tension and compression with associated failure
mechanisms.
New crust would be forming at the mid-oceanic rift or
“spreading” zones or any other zones where tensile failures are
concentrated, as suggested in Figure 11(b). This could appear
as stripes of new basalt that may or may not be in a symmetric
sequence about the “spreading” zone, and into which magnetic
time signatures could be frozen. However, the present model
would be entirely consistent with older, possibly continental
crust, existing where PT would anticipate much younger
sediments, as observed by Timofeyev (1992), Udintsev (1996) and
Dickins et al. (1992), and for the magnetized basalt stripes to
be interspersed with older rock, possibly of continental origin
as recorded by Grant (1980) and Choi et al. (1992). It would
also be entirely consistent with non-sequential and asymmetric
stripes of magnetized basalt (Meyerhoff et al., 1974). It is
these features that have been observed to be problematic with
the PT model. Magma pillows extending from these mid-oceanic
fractures could be expected during some of these extrusions,
with a statistical probability that those spreading furthest
would have occurred longest ago. Each of these pillows of
magma, formed during one of the tension cycles, would be
overlaid with sediments that would have accumulated over the
subsequent compression (warming) cycles, during which the rates
of fluvial erosion of the continental landmass would be at
their highest. This would mean that the age of the sediment at
the first basalt layer might become progressively older as the
distance from the spreading zone increases. However, the
present model would be consistent with the suspicions of
Dickins et al. (1992) and many others that were deep sea
drilling to penetrate through the first layer of basalt older
sedimentary layers would be discovered beneath. Indeed, it
might be anticipated that a succession of increasingly ancient
alternating layers of basalt and sedimentary rocks would be
found. Such a finding would be a serious embarrassment to PT,
but a strong probability for the present cyclic expansion and
contraction, compression and tension, model. At the mid-oceanic
fracture or rift zones the heating period will lead to
compression forces being developed in the now integral new
crust. Under certain conditions these compressions will be
enough to initiate local folding, shearing, faulting or general
uplift of the crust. These uplifts or ridges would be expected
to grow during each of the heating cycles, as suggested in
Figure 11(b). It is one of the problem areas of PT that the
ridges, characteristic of compression action, should occur
where the spreading is said to result from a steady tensile
rifting. No such problems occur in the present cyclic model.
Over the 4.5 Ga or so of Earth’s existence, many thousands of
thermal cycles will have been experienced. Some will have been
very much more extreme than others, depending upon the
particular forms of the orbit and spin characteristics. Many
will have occurred prior to the formation of a significant
crustal layer as we know it today. But the effects of these
cycles could be likened to a thermal pump. Each heating
(compression) cycle will lead to processes that tend to
concentrate crust into folded mountains, mid-oceanic ridges, or
over-riding shear and folding typical at the trenches or
so-called subduction zones. In each cooling (tension) cycle the
distortions from these compression failures will not be
reversed, but, as a result of the differential properties of
rock in tension and compression, will result in tension
fractures, shear dislocations and rifts opening up to be
intruded with magma that upon solidification forms new crust.
By this means a new, integral, crust will present itself for
the process to be continued during the next heating
(compression) cycle. The process is closely analogous to the
processes controlling the development of ice-wedge polygons in
permafrost, Mackay et al. (2002), the behaviour recently
hypothesized for pingo development, Croll (2004) and also that
recently described for certain motions of glacial ice, Croll
(2007e). In each of these cases it is the water rather than the
molten magma that solidifies after filling the tension cracks.
But in all these and other cases the thermal ratchet has its
origins in the different failure properties of the materials in
tension and compression, and of course the different
periodicities of the thermal cycles brought about by the
Earth’s interaction with the Sun.
VERTICAL TECTONICS
In the circa 4.5 Ga years it has taken to develop the Earth’s
crust and its associated water volume, the average thickness
and therefore the volume of the crust has been gradually
increasing. It might be safe to assume that over a shorter time
frame, measured in terms of say a few million years, the crustal
volume remains effectively constant. Hence, the cyclic creation
of new crust, often near mid-oceanic “spreading zones”, must be
balanced by the loss of older crust. However, this does not
necessitate a model envisioned by PT where the new crust is
being continuously pushed out only to be lost again in
subduction zones by being thrust back down into the molten
magma. Instead, the present model suggests a very different
form of mass balance that could help to explain the very long
period vertical motions experienced by both continental and sea
floor crust. It could provide an explanation for why ocean
floors sink and become thinner, and then build-up, rise and
become continents again, only to be eroded and sink back to
become ocean floor. Vertical movements of continental and
oceanic crust are clearly on time scales that are orders of
magnitude greater than the periodic thermal cycle described
above in terms of the ratchet action driving horizontal motions.
Whereas the latter can be measured in 100’s of thousands of
years the vertical motions would appear to occur at time scales
of one to two orders of magnitude greater. That being so many
hundreds of thermal cycles could go into the development of the
vertical motions of crust. However, it will be suggested that at
least some of the driving force for these vertical motions
could also derive from the thermal cycles arising from the
changes in orbital eccentricity and axis of spin of the Earth.
The following briefly describes how the thermally derived
components of this driving mechanism might work. As discussed
above even a moderate drop in surface temperature leading to
the growth of a continental ice sheet will, in addition to the
simple increase in weight of the overburden, result in
considerably larger decreases in temperature at the lower
levels of the crust. As suggested in Figure 9 this change in
thermal regime could give rise to aggradation of solidified
magma at the lower crust boundary. With this solidified magma
having a lower density than the magma from which it derived,
buoyancy considerations would suggest that this lower surface
aggradation would produce a rise of the upper surface of the
crust. Whether the rise due to lower surface aggradation of
crust would be greater than the fall due to increased ice
overburden would be dependent upon the thermal conductivity and
the thickness of the crust and the ice overburden. An additional
factor that could influence the rise and fall would be the
strain state associated with the cyclic changes in thermal
regime within the crust. The large drops in temperatures at the
lower levels would, if no tension fractures occurred, result in
build-up of tension stress having a profile similar to that
shown in Figure 12(a). This would be equivalent to loading the
crustal plate with a resultant tensile force and a moment which
will tend to deform the plate into a downward concave shape, as
shown in Figure 12(b). Tensile fractures relieving these
stresses would be greatest at the lower surface of the crust so
that any intrusion of magma that subsequently solidifies would
tend to lock-in the downward deformation, of the crust giving
rise to a general lowering of the upper surface of the crust.
Again, the relative importance of these thermally induced
stress fracture effects would be dependent upon the nature of
the crust.
==Figure 12. How long term crustal cooling would generate
average tensile forces that could contribute to the vertical
depression of crust.
Surface warming could be expected to have the opposite effects
upon the rise and fall of crust. The loss of ice overburden
would as is generally recognized to have been occurring in
Scandinavia following the most recent ice age, produce an uplift
of the crust. The thermal effects discussed above could in
contrast add to this inter-glacial rebound or give rise to a
lowering of the upper surface of the crust. As discussed in
Figure 10 the non-uniform heating of the crust could result in
remagmafication of crustal material at the lower boundary. Due
to the increased density of the magma this would be anticipated
to result in thinning and sinking of the crust. In contrast,
and as suggested in Figure 13, the non-uniform increases in
temperature with depth would give rise to compressive stresses
that are greatest at the lower boundary. To accommodate the
failures and enhanced creep at the lower levels of the crust
associated with the higher compressive stresses and the higher
visco-plastic strains, an upward dishing of the crust is likely
to occur. This upward deformation could be thought of as a form
of upheaval buckling induced by the high compressive force and
its eccentricity encouraging an upward deformation. So the
thermal effects could either be adding to the rebound during an
inter- glacial, or under different conditions working to produce
a sinking of the crust. Similar effects would be experienced
within oceanic crust being subjected to major changes in its
thermal regime as a result of perturbations in the surface
temperature and any associated changes in the thermal
insulation. Over large numbers of thermal cycles a number of
possible outcomes could occur. Possibly triggered by a
prolonged period of cold surface conditions, ocean crust could
gradually rise or fall and not be recovered by say a shorter
intervening period of warm surface conditions. The reverse
would be true of prolonged periods of warm surface conditions
followed by shorter intervening periods of cold. In this regard
it is interesting to speculate that the Earth’s rate of spin at
different times of its 4.5 Ga history may have been very
different to what it is today. Might there have been geological
epochs during which Earth may have almost ceased spinning and
even undergone reversals in direction? Such changes could start
to account for very considerable antipodal differences in the
thermal gradients through the Earths crust. With the associated
prolonged periods of either intense cold or heating it would be
possible to envisage a situation where crust becomes intensely
heated on one side of Earth and intensely cold at the antipode.
This could possibly account for the well recorded observation
that continental crust and oceanic crust have a strong tendency
to occur as antipodal opposites.
==Figure 13. How long term crustal warming would generate
average compressive forces that could contribute to the
vertical elevation of crust.
Potentially massive changes in thermal energy within the earth’s
crust have been suggested to give rise to tectonic forces
capable of producing either rises or falls of both ocean and
continental crust. Once again the mechanisms for the
alternations of thermal energy have been suggested to derive
from the long term cycles of solar radiation reaching the
earth’s surface and magnification of the thermal regimes
brought about by the consequential changes in the levels of
surface insulation to the outflow of geothermal energy.
Credible mechanisms have been described which under certain
conditions would be expected to result in a long term rise of
oceanic crust to eventually become continental crust and vice
versa. That such vertical motions have occurred is fairly clear
from the evidence available. It is the failure to explain such
vertical changes in crustal disposition and indeed its
assumption that they have generally not occurred that is one of
the major shortcomings of PT as currently formulated.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It has been suggested that there are some fundamental problems
with plate tectonics (PT), the now dominant paradigm that
underpins much of current geologic thinking. Most of these
problems are overcome by a new model that attributes the
tectonic forces required to drive the formation of the Earth’s
crust to the periodic changes in thermal conditions. Some of
these thermal changes are suggested to derive from variations
in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun and to a lesser extent the
periodic changes in the orientation of the Earth’s axis of spin
relative to the orbital plane. Restraint of the expansions
wanting to take place when the crust warms will induce massive
compressive forces. During the cooling cycle these same
restraints will act to induce a dominantly tension field. This
cycle of thermal loading has been suggested to act like a form
of tectonic pump driving the many processes currently explained
by PT. But importantly, it has been reasoned that this new
model is capable of resolving many paradoxes of PT and in
particular could help to resolve the issue upon which PT is
noticeably silent, namely, the processes that cause long term
vertical movement of both continental and ocean crust
(“plates”). This cyclic, thermal, model has been shown to be
capable of explaining: the vertical upheaval of thickened
oceanic floor to form continental land masses; the vertical
depression of eroded continents to form new ocean floors; the
formation of mid-oceanic mountain chains often adjacent to
mid-oceanic rifts and “spreading zones”; and the processes
whereby mountains continue to be formed on continental land
masses. While direct evidence to prove or disprove this new
model would appear to be unavailable, its consistency with much
of what is known would seem to recommend it for serious
consideration. Future evidence may show that it is incorrectly
founded. This risk is surely outweighed by the consideration
that the present model is already known to be at odds with too
much fundamental empirical data to be retained. We are clearly
in need of fresh thinking. It is hoped that this contribution
could form part of this fresh thinking.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: Presentation of this paper at the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, European Conference,
Athens, 17-20 November, 2007, was made possible by a Leverhulme
Research Fellowship grant number RF/RFG/2006/0087. This support
is gratefully acknowledged.
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26 New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 42, March,
2007
THE ENIGMA OF THE DEAD SEA TRANSFORM LEGEND
BUILT ON AUTOMATIC CITATIONS: PART 1
... The Rifts Fallacy
The first page of another 1970 Freund publication was also found
on the internet and reveals that while he helped establish the
Dead Sea Transform legend, he also warned the Red Sea could not
be opened by ignoring what was then known as the big Afar
triangle (Fig. 4):
Nature 228, 453 (31 October, 1970); doi:10.1038/228453a0
Plate Tectonics of the Red Sea and East Africa
RAPHAEL FREUND
Department of Geology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem.
I WOULD like to comment on some of the assumptions and results
of a recent letter by McKenzie et al. They reconstruct the
pre-movement position of Arabia and Africa by fitting the two
coast lines of the Red Sea, assuming that the entire space
between the coasts is occupied by newly formed oceanic crust.
This assumption ignores the existence of the Danakil horst,
which consists of continental crust (Pre-Cambrian, Jurassic)
and which is some 80 km wide, in between these two coast lines
in the southern Red Sea depression. It seems impossible to close
the gap of the Red Sea without leaving the space required for
this continental block.
These words were the pivotal moment in the whole history of
Plate Tectonics, but Circus Maximus ignored this crucial
warning and proceeded to pick the lock at the mouth of the Red
Sea. In fact, their darkest secret was that the Red Sea must be
seen to be opening wide and connecting with the Mediterranean,
otherwise the whole region is a closed system and the axe of
oceanization hangs over their heads (Fig. 5).
So the Red Sea had to be a rift and the dark continent of Africa
was then perfect for establishing the illusion of forking rifts
(Fig. 6) where nobody could possibly suspect the existence of
forking ENIGMAS (Fig. 7).
Despite plentiful signs of the ENIGMA in the form of triangles
(Fig. 8) and all over the 1976 Gravity Map of Australia (Fig.
9), the illusion of the forking rift spread from Africa right
around the world to become the biggest fiasco in the history of
man's intellectual endeavours and far too hot for the media in
1999 and 2004.
While the biggest offset in Australia is quite small (Fig. 10),
the 105 km shift along the DST was needed to confirm that the
whole Levant was on the move, that the Red Sea was about to
open, and Africa was about to be torn apart, yet there was not
a scrap of evidence of this actually happening anywhere on the
planet, despite “finding” many platelets. New Concepts in
Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 42, March, 2007 31
Figure 5. The utter absurdity of Plate Tectonics was obvious
decades ago. The Mediterranean and Red Sea are really zones of
closed subsidence being reworked by oceanization, and access
has been produced by waterfalls cutting through basement ridges
at Gibraltar and Istanbul. Gibraltar means that all the inland
seas were caused by oceanization and Continental Drift is a
giant farce.
Figure 6. In the land of multiple illusions, opening the Red Sea
was a fiasco as it was always obvious the Afar end is
completely closed and locked. The high elevation (left) is
shown in red and contains the best known rifts of east Africa.
The cartoon (center) impatiently anticipates the rifting away
of this whole section, yet there is no evidence for any actual
opening in any continent, and the fallacy that African rifts
fork (right) makes this a mega fiasco. 32 New Concepts in Global
Tectonics Newsletter, no. 42, March, 2007
Figure 7. Rifts were invented by Plate Tectonics in the dark
data-less continent of Africa. The initial concepts were wildly
spurious and varied from tension to compression and even
oscillations. In Australian gravity ENIGMA ridges fork (bottom
left), and the forking African rift (bottom right) is an
illusion which explains why they have all failed to open and
why no continent has ever broken up (Anfiloff, 1989).
Figure 8. The illusion of the forking African rifts hides the
ENIGMA. The compression-driven compartmentalized Polycyclic
Rifting process (Anfiloff, 1992) shows how bifurcating ridges
weave in and out of a row of triangular troughs and is the bane
of oil exploration. But the term “rift” should now be completely
removed from the lexicon of tectonics!New Concepts in Global
Tectonics Newsletter, no. 42, March, 2007 33
Figure 9. The difference between African rift tectonics and
Australian ENIGMA triangle tectonics needs to be investigated.
The crux of the Plate Tectonics illusion lies in the complete
absence of any continent actually breaking apart cleanly
anywhere in the world despite the finding of numerous
“platelets”. They often slice through triangles but no offsets
are to be seen anywhere along these alleged cracks in the
crust. Nor does the ENIGMA involve much offset in the formation
of its triangles which have a very specific slope towards the
ridge (Fig. 8).
Figure 10. This is the only tangible offset in the magnetics of
Australia and it does not continue into the Yilgarn Shield.
Nor was there any evidence of an incipient opening process in
any deep penetrating geophysical data, and after a dozen big
fiascos, all this culminated decades later in the tectonic
banana fiasco (Fig. 11). This figure shows where Plate Tectonics
started and ended, and the grist of all the fiascos in between
lies in the difference between Africa and Australia (Fig. 9).
To avoid this, Circus Maximus has used transforms to slice
tectonic triangles down the middle as if they are cucumbers,
without showing any offsets, and without explaining why they
even exist (Fig. 12).
Two of these triangular cucumbers were eventually studied in
detail and they called them pull-apart basins but that only
created more fiascos and points to an underlying problem which
Plate Tectonics could not solve: the subduction contradiction.
The Nemah fiasco
The new generation has never seen a vertical tectonic structure
because they were deleted from schools and even books on oil
exploration. This culminated in the Nemah fiasco. More than a
decade after the complete ENIGMA was revealed (Anfiloff, 1992),
oil explorers still have no idea they are standing on top of one
on the Nemah Ridge and that the whole of the legendary Mid
Continent Rift is really a string of highly evolved ENIGMAS
(Fig. 13).
This again shows the fiasco of the big rift model illusion in
Figure 11 which while taught all over the internet, has never
been tested anywhere with real data.
The GPS fiasco
For decades the DST legend was never properly tested and was
propped up by the automatic citation process. Then GPS
measurements of creep created the insidious merry-go-round of
the locked fault, whose logic is: we know the whole thing was
moving, but it paused while we were measuring it!
-----
ORAL SESSION
Morning session Co-Chairs: S. T. Tassos, K. Storetvedt and D.
Choi
Introductory Remarks: Karsten Storetvedt
Five Para-Myths and One Comprehensive Proposition in Geology:
The Solid, Quantified, Growing and Radiating Earth
Stavros T. Tassos, Institute of Geodynamics, National
Observatory of Athens, PO Box 200 48, Athens 118 10
Greece, phone: +30 210 34 90 169, s.tassos@gein.noa.gr
Five propositions in Geology, namely Plate Tectonics, Constant
Size Earth, Heat Engine Earth, Elastic Rebound, and the Organic
Origin of Hydrocarbon Reserves are challenged as Para-Myths
because their potential truth is not confirmed by Observation,
and/or Experiment, and/or Logic. In their place the Excess Mass
Stress Tectonics - EMST, i.e., a Solid, Quantified, Growing and
Radiating Earth and its implications, such as the Inorganic
Origin of Hydrocarbons, claims to be a
Comprehensive Proposition.
Space is the infinite source of all mass that becomes measurable
as energy - unpaired standing or travelling waves and
matter-paired standing waves, i.e., waving space itself at
299792458 m/s. Energy and matter are sine waveforms of local
anisotropy in the elastic, large-scale isotropic continuum,
which is lossless and has infinite elasticity to any velocity <
light speed, and infinite rigidity at v c. Gravity is tension
and its inverse quantity is ‘mass'-space density. All
wave-particles contain a constant quantum of tensional elastic
potential, irrespective of wavelength, as per E=hf. Due to
constant linear stretching, the total tensional elastic energy
(E), i.e., frequency, raises proportionally counteracting
entropic dissipation, whilst local space density (m), inversely
and proportionally increases, as one entity, thus the constancy
of the square root of their ratio. In the context of Excess Mass
Stress Tectonics – EMST, Earth is a quantified solid black body
that appears to grow with time. Earth's inner core is an
equilibrium high-tension/high-frequency location, wherein
energy-unpaired standing or travelling waves transform into
matter-paired standing waves, so that the conservation principle
is not violated. Form new elements, i.e., ‘Excess Mass', which
are added atom-by-atom, the greater bulk concentrically, whereas
the ‘active' part rises in the cold and increasingly rigid with
depth mantle, as the seismic wave velocity data indicate. Upon
oxidation-decompression the reduced form releases its ‘excess'
electrons. Iron with the highest nuclear binding energy of 8.8
MeV should be the last element to form; thus the absence of true
oceanic crust older than 200 m.y. High temperatures and melting
are local and episodic phenomena, sourced by radiant heat, i.e.,
electron resonance in 10-6 m micro-cracks at 1014 Hz, at depths
lower than 5 km; the maximum depth horizontal micro-cracks can
remain permanently open. In the context of Excess Mass Stress
Tectonics – EMST, hydrocarbons are energy sources produced
abiotically through a process whereby hydrogen and carbon, but
also oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and trace-elements being formed
in the Earth's core, rise through radial fracture trails in the
solid and cold mantle to the Earth's surface. If their rise is
blocked compose bigger compounds, e.g., kerogen, that can
transform by radiant heat in the upper 5 km or so of the Earth's
interior, into gas, oil and coal, at temperatures <200, 100-50,
and <50oC, respectively. In the absence of trapping and/or above
200oC, the temperature at which porphyrins are destroyed, they
are released as methane gas, like in Titan today, and/or are
fully oxidized to CO2 and H2O. Oil and gas reserves mature in
basins adjacent to deformed Precambrian shields and platforms,
mostly during the last 200 m.y., when wide and deep oceans and a
complex pattern of uplifts and sedimentary basins developed,
thus providing the reservoirs and the structural and/or
stratigraphic traps. They associate with moderate seismic and
volcanic activity, free-air gravity, geoidal, and heat flow
anomalies, and large igneous provinces, i.e., Excess Mass. 62
New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 45, December,
2007 Depending on the “virtual” temperature gradient and in the
absence of migration, gas, oil and coal should be found at
greater, intermediate, and shallower depths, respectively. For
example, with 200oC at 4 km depth, temperature gradient 50oC/km,
thermal conductivity 2 W/m.oC, and heat flow 100 mW/m2 gas, oil,
and coal should be found at about 3, <2, and <1 km,
respectively.
#Post#: 155--------------------------------------------------
WRENCH, NOT SURGE
By: Admin Date: March 2, 2017, 7:58 am
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MF 2/24
« on: February 24, 2017, 10:58:32 pm »
New Concepts in Global Tectonics Journal, V. 4, No. 3, September
2016. www.ncgt.org 353
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Dear Editor,
Inertia-triggered global tectonic stresses and polar wander
In recent letters (NCGT 2015, p. 104-105; 2016, p. 3-4), Peter
James has speculated on whether the driving forces invoked to
operate my global Wrench Tectonics – the sum of inertial effects
caused by Earth’s variable rotation – indeed are strong enough
for having a noticeable effect on Earth’s surface structure.
Based on his geotechnical experience he apparently regards my
inferred inertia-triggered torque hopelessly inadequate for the
task –allegedly pointing to “the enormous forces that would be
required to twist a continental unit like Australia”.
Nevertheless, numerous GPS velocity studies demonstrate that
Australia is in fact currently undergoing relatively fast
counter-clockwise torsion – consistent with the inferred system
of latitude-dependent inertial ‘crustal’ wrenching (cf.
Storetvedt and Longhinos, 2014; Storetvedt, 2015). Furthermore,
Peter James alleges that I have discussed rotation of Australia
in Devonian/Carboniferous times, but this allegation is wrong.
Crustal wrenching, giving rise to episodic inertial rotation of
continental blocks, is only a feature of the last 100 million
years (or so) of Earth history. The rotational instability of
the modern continents, which are still taking place, apparently
began as a dynamo-tectonic consequence of accelerated processes
of crustal oceanization and deep sea formation which was the
prerequisite of the Alpine tectonic revolution.
The superdeep Kola drill hole (to a depth of some 12 km) gave
the surprising results that fracture spacing increases
exponentially versus depth in the upper crust, and similar
unexpected observations have been obtained in the 9 km deep
crustal drilling site in SE Germany (KTB). A most unexpected
discovery of the two continental sections was that the
characteristic system of open fractures was filled with hydrous
fluids which, under pressure and temperature conditions
predicted for the middle and lower crust, would be in its
strongly buoyant supercritical state (cf. Storetvedt, 2013 for
references and discussion); hence, the strong buoyancy of
supercritical hydrous fluids is likely to be the main cause of
the increasing fracture volume versus depth in the continental
crust. In fact, it appears that the crust does not represent a
solid carapace but constitutes rather a highly fractured and
increasingly fluid/gas-filled cover layer. Thus, even for the
upper crust, the shear strength is likely to be much lower than
what traditionally has been assumed. Accordingly, conventional
estimates of tectonic twisting forces are clearly outdated; such
guesses have little, if any, significance.
In an earlier paper in this journal (Storetvedt, 2011), I took a
critical look at the origin and development mode of the Earth. I
concluded that “The Earth is apparently still in a relatively
un-degassed state, which may be the very reason for its
ceaseless dynamo-tectonic activity. Furthermore, the
physico-chemical struggle towards internal equilibrium may be
expected to have resulted in episodic reworking of the primitive
surface layer – in accordance with the variegated [and jerky]
geological history”. According such a development scheme,
reorganization of the interior mass must have given rise to
periodic changes of the Earth’s moments of inertia – including
events of true polar wander, which are likely to have been a
principal dynamic driver of the planet’s pulse-like geological
history. An event of true polar wander represents a relatively
fast turning-over of the Earth’s body relative to the
astronomical rotation axis – resulting in migration of the
equatorial bulge and the zones of polar flattening, naturally
imposing significant stress changes on the crust.
Therefore, polar wandering events may serve as a kind of
hydraulic pump forcing pressurized hydrous fluids (from the
upper mantle) into the expanding fracture system of the
overlying crust; in this process, the crustal shear strength is
likely to have been greatly reduced periodically – perhaps by
orders of magnitude. Owing to the slow magnetization processes
in nature, qualified palaeomagnetic studies would only capture
the more significant long-term (‘first order’) polar wander
events (cf. Storetvedt, 2016) while a recent interesting study
of orientation of ancient cultic objects (Grigoriev, 2015) seems
to have been able to define a transient Holocene polar track –
representing a time span of only tens of thousands of years.
Nevertheless, wrenching deformation of the crust – as
demonstrated by palaeomagnetism and supported by GPS velocity
studies – would have been episodic like everything else in
global tectonophysics.
Peter James suggests that crustal stresses brought about by
polar wander events would tectonically be much more effective
than inertial forces. I fully agree that polar wander, with its
associated global-extent crustal stresses, is likely to be a
very important factor in crustal wrenching processes; but in
order to explain the overall pattern of crustal torsion it is
necessary to bring in also the effects of planetary inertia –
for which the regulating tectonic stresses would be towards the
equator and westward (for references and discussion, see
Storetvedt, 2015). This is in fact the mobilistic principle of
my wrench tectonics – originally based on a reconsideration of
global palaeomagnetic data and subsequently supported by the
overall scheme of estimated crustal GPS velocities.
References
Grigoriev, S.A., 2015. Orientation of ancient cultic objects and
polar drift. NCGT Journal, v. 3, no. 4, p. 416-431.
Storetvedt, K.M., 2011. Aspects of Planetary Formation and the
Precambrian Earth. NCGT Newsletter, no. 59, p. 60-83.
Storetvedt, K.M., 2013. Global Theories and Standards of
Judgement: Knowledge versus Groundless Speculation. NCGT
Journal, v. 1, no. 3, p. 55-101.
Storetvedt, K.M., 2015. Inertial forces on the lithosphere. NCGT
Journal, v. 3, no. 3, p.259-262.
Storetvedt, K.M., 2016. A Personal History of the
Remagnetization Debate: Accounting for a Mobilistic Earth. NCGT
Journal, v. 4, no. 2, p. 322-344.
Storetvedt, K.M. & Longhinos, B., 2014. Australasia within the
Setting of Global Wrench Tectonics. NCGT Journal, v. 2, no. 1,
p. 66-96.
Karsten M. Storetvedt
University of Bergen, Norway
karsten.storetvedt@uib.no
-----
NCGT Journal, v. 1, no. 3, September 2013. www.ncgt.org
56
ESSAY
GLOBAL THEORIES AND STANDARDS OF JUDGMENT:
KNOWLEDGE VERSUS GROUNDLESS SPECULATION
Karsten M. STORETVEDT
Institute of Geophysics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
karsten.storetvedt@gfi.uib.no
“There is no inductive method which could lead to the
fundamental concepts…in error are those theorists who believe
that theory comes inductively from experience.” Albert Einstein,
in: Philosophy of Science (1934)
“The dispassionate intellect, the open mind, the unprejudiced
observer, exists in an exact sense only in a sort of
intellectualist folk-lore; states even approaching them cannot
be reached without a moral and emotional effort most of us
cannot or will not make.”
Wilfred Trotter, in: Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War
(1916)
Abstract: In the history of global geology, it has become
customary either to ignore problems that do not fit a favoured
model, or alternatively to deal with them, in an ad hoc manner,
one by one. This means that the geological community has never
had the advantage of a functional master theory. The lack of a
real overarching plan has clearly hampered a sound development
of the Earth sciences, and during the reign of plate tectonics
the situation in global geology has perhaps become more chaotic
than ever. In an attempt to get out of this deadlock, the search
has begun for erecting a new theoretical framework – a
functional platform to account for Earth’s diverse expressions,
its phenomenological interconnections and development pattern.
As a result of these endeavours, a certain ‘battle’ is presently
taking place between two incompatible global tectonic proposals:
surge tectonics versus wrench tectonics – both being variably
linked to planetary rotation. It is concluded that surge
tectonics is too narrow in scope and does not have the necessary
predictive-explanatory power to serve as a next generation
global geological theory.
Keywords: philosophy and sociology of science, requirements of
functional theories, global dynamics, surge tectonics,
wrench tectonics
Science as a human enterprise
In a number of books, articles, essays and letters I have, in
recent years, taken up a multitude of pressing problems in
global geology (Storetvedt 1997; 2003; 2005a, b; 2007; 2009,
2010a, b; 2011a), and in some co-authored works (Storetvedt et
al. 2003; Storetvedt and Longhinos 2010, 2011; Storetvedt and
Bouzari, 2012) the topical discussion has been greatly extended.
In addition to purely geo scientific aspects, I have also paid
attention to the diversity of distracting human nature
interventions – including intellectual laziness, wishful
thinking, blind commitment, and the herd instinct (Storetvedt,
2005a; 2008; 2009; 2011b; 2013a); these non-scientific factors
are of particular importance when it comes to discussion of
global tectonic theories, which, relative to the mini-theories
of specific geological disciplines, have their very special
cognitive and heuristic functions. Thus, ‘big picture’ thinking
– in general having been acquired through reiteration processes,
social relationship or by the powers of indoctrination or
persuasion – forms the weakest part of all sciences. For
example, ad hoc provisions generally flourish at mini-scale
research but rarely on the basic tenets of a particular science
with which the majority of scientists is largely unfamiliar.
Scientific discussions are often packed with observation
statements regarded as verified facts.
#Post#: 156--------------------------------------------------
SURGE TECTONICS
By: Admin Date: March 2, 2017, 11:25 am
---------------------------------------------------------
New Concepts in Global Tectonics Newsletter, no. 58, March, 2011
50 DISCUSSIONS
SCIENTIFIC LOGIC BEHIND SURGE TECTONICS HYPOTHESIS
M. Ismail BHAT bhatmi@hotmail.com
Christian SMOOT christiansmoot532@gmail.com
Dong R. CHOI raax@ozemail.com.au
_Recent issues of the NCGT Newsletter carried criticism of the
surge tectonics. _The critiques are either half attempts
(Karesten Storetvedt) or superficial (Peter James). _While our
response to Storetvedt should equally apply to James’ comment,
we would however very briefly address his comment separately.
_Using this opportunity we shall also ask a question or two to
those who advocate oceanization. _And finally, we present a
little puzzle for expanding Earth proponents.
Karesten Storetvedt – Criticism off the mark _Storetvedt (NCGT
issue no. 57) denounced surge tectonics -- in favor of his
wrench tectonics -- as unable to account for geological
history. _Our intention here, however, is not to pick holes in
wrench tectonics or to defend surge tectonics. _That is for
the readers and time. _We would instead argue what we believe
is the scientifically most logical basis for enunciation of
surge tectonics. _Storetvedt writes “As I see it, the [surge
tectonics] hypothesis has ignored too many data that didn't fit
the box (just as has been the situation for Wegenerian drift
and plate tectonics). _To me many of the arguments sounded
strained and constructed for the purpose.” _But, except for one
(tropical-subtropical conditions in Antarctica; see below), he
neither identifies those “ignored” data nor tell the reader what
arguments sound “strained” or “constructed for the purpose.”
_Isn’t that truly unscientific? _Anyhow, one can’t be more off
the mark. _Surge tectonics isn’t being proposed as a model
which is then beefed up and confirmed by data (something
Storetvedt seems to prefer); instead it evolves from known
data. _Here is the story for those who haven’t read or heard
about it. _The evolution of surge tectonics happened through a
series of articles by Arthur A. Meyerhoff and his coworkers that
began in 1972 and culminated in the first presentation of the
concept in 1989 at a conference sponsored by the Smithsonian
Institute and Texas Tech University. _The proceedings of the
conference, including the surge tectonics concept, were later
published in 1992. _In 1995 Journal of Southeast Asian Earth
Sciences published its application under the title
‘Surge-tectonic evolution of southeastern Asia: a
geohydrodynamics approach’ as a single paper issue. _So, it
was not just the enunciation of a concept but its testing as
well. _The year 1996 saw the consolidation and publication of
the whole idea and its application in book form with one
additional topic on magma floods. _The book has just six
chapters including a very short one on conclusions.
>_It begins with a brief discussion of former and current
concepts of Earth dynamics, including Earth contraction
concept, which incidentally provides the basic framework for
the surge tectonics.
_Pros and cons of each concept are presented, concluding with
why there is need for a new hypothesis. _Next it presents a
short description of the history and evolution of techniques
for data gathering.
>_It is followed by a long discussion of 29 data sets that
remain unexplained by all the current geodynamic models.
>_The spread of these data sets is worth noting: from the
smallest (like dip and strike, joints and lineations) through
hydrothermal manifestations, linear anorogenic belts,
distribution of world evaporites, vortex structures, deep
continental roots, morphology and seismic characters of
different tectonic elements (rift zones, ocean ridges, island
arcs, mountain belts), ocean floor bathymetry, oceanic
basement, heat and microearthquake bands, Benioff zones,
antipodal arrangement of oceans and continents, continental
margin phenomena, seismotomography and convection, magma floods
to presence or absence of certain tectonic elements in
particular parts of globe (like island arcs and ocean island
chains).
_The basic data in all these cases is sourced from published
literature, predominantly by plate tectonicists. _Does the
whole spectrum look like “constructed for the purpose?” _What
is most significant here is the identification of a common
denominator that defines all these 29 tectonic elements and how
it lays the foundation for a new concept.
>_That common denominator is the presence in the lithosphere of
magma channels at various depths rising from asthenosphere
across all tectonic elements and across all plate tectonic
settings – rift, ridge, subduction zone and mountain belts.
>_The magma channel is shown to be either active or fossilized
with characteristic P-wave velocity range of 7.0 to 7.8 km/s.
_Next comes the construction of surge tectonics hypothesis.
>_It begins with a discussion of the seismic velocity structure
of the Earth and evidence for deep continental roots.
>_Then we have discussion of eleven pieces of geological and
geophysical evidence for a differentiated, cooling Earth, one
of which also provides a neat explanation for the existence of
asthenosphere: >“As the Earth cools, it solidifies from surface
downward.
>_Because stress states in cooled [lithosphere] and uncooled
[strictosphere, i.e. mantle below asthenosphere] parts are
necessarily opposite one another, compression above and tension
below, the two parts must be separated by a surface or zone …
called the level of no strain.”
>_This is followed by discussion of why the original contraction
hypothesis fails as a viable geodynamic concept and how the
presence of surge channels in an environment of compressive
stresses of lithosphere does away with all the valid objections
to the Earth contraction concept.
>_That is to say, the contraction concept is revived in a new
form that addresses all the known objections to its original
form.
>_Also, evidence for the flow of fluid (magma) under each
tectonic element is presented and shown to control and define
structural and morphological features of all the data sets.
>_We then have the introduction of surge channel concept.
_In order not to give any impression of ownership to the idea
of surge channels and give due credit to where it belongs to,
literature review of the concept of surge and related concepts
in Earth-dynamic theory is presented.
>_Geotectonic cycle of surge tectonics is also briefly
introduced here followed by geophysical and other evidence for
the existence of surge channels, their geometry, demonstration
of tangential flow, mechanism of eastward flow, their
classification, geophysical/ geological criteria for their
identification and their examples in different tectonic
settings as well as how their variable thickness are controlled
are presented and discussed.
>_Next we see application of surge tectonics hypothesis to SE
Asia and origin of magma floods.
_Quoting from the surge tectonics book -- Meyerhoff et al. 1996
-- and ignoring references to the cited literature as well as
figures/tables, the broad framework of the hypothesis is thus:
>_“Surge tectonics is based on the concept that the lithosphere
contains a worldwide network of deformable magma chambers (surge
channels) in which partial magma melt is in motion (active surge
channels) or was in motion at some time in the past (inactive
surge channels)…
>_The presence of surge channels means that all of the
compressive stresses in the lithosphere are oriented at right
angles to their walls.
>_As this compressive stress increases during a given tectonic
cycle, it eventually ruptures the channels that are deformed
bilaterally into kobergens [bilaterally deformed foldbelts]…
>_“Surge tectonics involves three separate but interdependent
and interacting processes.
>_The first process is the contraction or cooling of the Earth.
>_The second is the lateral flow of fluid, or semifluid, magma
through a network of interconnected magma channels in the
lithosphere [the cooled outer shell].
>_We call these surge channels.
>_The third process is the Earth’s rotation.
>_This process involves differential lag between the lithosphere
and the strictosphere (the hard [still hot but cooling] mantle
beneath the asthenosphere and lower crust), and its effects –
eastward shifts.”
_No other geodynamic concept touches this aspect. _Again
quoting from the surge tectonics book, and ignoring references
to the cited literature as well as figures/tables, here is how
geotectonic cycle is envisaged under surge tectonics:
>_“The asthenosphere alternately expands (during times of
tectonic quiescence) and contracts (during tectogenesis).
>_Thus when the asthenosphere is expanding, the surge channels
above it, which are supplied from the asthenosphere, also are
expanding; and when tectogenesis takes place, the magma in
surge channels is expelled.
>_Tectogenesis is triggered by collapse of the lithosphere into
the asthenosphere along 30o-dipping lithosphere Benioff zones.
>_The following is [the] interpretation of the approximate
sequence of events during a geotectonic cycle.
>_1. The strictosphere is always contracting, presumably at a
steady rate, because the Earth is cooling.
>_2. The overlying lithosphere, because it is already cool, does
not contract, but adjusts its basal circumference to the upper
surface of the shrinking stictosphere by (1) large-scale
thrusting along lithosphere Benioff zones, and (2) normal-type
faulting along the strictosphere Benioff zones.
>_These two types of deformation, one compressive and the other
tensile, are complementary and together constitute an example
of Navier-Coulomb maximum shear stress theory.
>_3. The large-scale thrusting of the lithosphere is not a
continuous process, but occurs only when the lithosphere’s
underlying dynamic support fails.
>_That support is provided mainly by the softer asthenosphere
and frictional resistance along the Benioff fractures.
>_When the weight of the lithosphere overcomes the combined
resistance offered by the asthenosphere and Benioff-zone
friction, lithosphere collapse ensues.
>_Because this process cannot be perfectly cyclic, it must be
episodic; hence tectogenesis is episodic.
>_4. During anorogenic intervals between lithosphere collapses,
the asthenosphere volume increases slowly as the lithosphere
radius decreases.
>_The increase in asthenosphere volume is accompanied by
decompression in the asthenosphere.
>_5. Decompression is accompanied by rising temperature,
increased magma generation, and lowered viscosity in the
asthenosphere, which gradually weakens during the time intervals
between collapses.
>_6. Flow in the asthenosphere is predominantly eastward as a
consequence of the Earth’s rotation (Newton’s Third Law of
Motion).
>_Magma flow in the surge channels above the asthenosphere also
tends to be eastward, although local barriers may divert flow
in other directions for short distances.
>_Coriolis force also must exert an important influence on
asthenosphere and surge- channel flow, which by its nature is
Poiseuille flow.
>_Therefore, the flow at the channel walls is laminar and is
accompanied by viscous, or backward drag. The viscous drag
produces the swaths of faults, fractures, and fissures
(streamlines) that are visible at the surface above all the
active tectonic belts. _These bands or swaths are example of
Stokes’ Law (one expression of Newton’s Second Law of Motion).
>_7. During lithosphere collapse into the asthenosphere, the
continentward (hanging wall) sides of lithosphere Benioff zones
override (obduct) the ocean floor.
>_The entire lithosphere buckles, fractures, and founders.
>_Enormous compressive stresses are created in the lithosphere.
>_8. Both the lithosphere and strictosphere fracture along great
circles at the depth of the strictoshere’s upper surface.
>_Only two partial great circle fracture zones survive on the
Earth today.
>_These include the fairly extensive, highly active
Circum-Pacific great circle and the almost defunct
Tethys-Mediterranean great circle.
>_9. When the lithosphere collapses into the asthenosphere, the
asthenosphere- derived magma in the surge channels begins to
surge intensely.
>_Whenever the volume of the magma in the channels exceeds their
volumetric capacity, and when compression in the lithosphere
exceeds the strength of the lithosphere that directly overlies
the surge channels, the surge-channel roofs rupture along the
cracks that comprise the faultfracture-fissure system generated
in the surge channel by Poiseuille flow before the rupture is
bivergent, whether it forms continental rifts, foldbelts,
strike-slip zones, or midocean rifts.
>_The fold belts develop into kobergens, some of them alpinotype
and some of them germanotype.
>_The tectonic style of a tectonic belt depends mainly on the
thickness and strength of the lithosphere overlying it.
>_10. Tectogenesis generally affects an entire tectonic belt
and, in fact, may be worldwide, the worldwide early to late
Eocene tectogenesis is an example.
>_This indicates that the lithosphere collapse generates
tectogenesis and transmits stresses everywhere in a given belt
at the same time.
_Thus Pascal’s law is at the core of tectogenesis.
>_Sudden rupture and deformation of surge channels may therefore
be likened to what happens when someone stamps a foot on a tube
full of tooth paste.
>_The speed or rapidity of tectogenesis, then, is related to the
number of fractures participating in the event, as well as to
the thickness of lithosphere involved, the size of the surge
channels or surge-channel system, the volume and types of magma
involved, and related factors.
>_11. Once tectogenesis is completed, another geotectonic cycle
or subcycle sets in, commonly within the same tectonic belt.”
>_Summarising, surge tectonics views the Earth as “a very large
hydraulic press.
>_Such a press consists of three essential parts – a closed
vessel, the liquid in the vessel, and a ram or piston.
>_The collapse of the lithosphere into the asthenosphere is the
activating ram or piston of tectogenesis.
>_The asthenosphere and its overlying lithosphere surge channels
– which are everywhere connected with the asthenosphere by
vertical conduits – are the vessels that enclose the fluid.
>_The fluid is magma generated in the asthenosphere.
>_The magma fills the lithosphere channels.
>_When the piston (lithosphere collapse) suddenly compresses the
channels and the underlying asthenosphere, the pressure is
transmitted rapidly and essentially simultaneously through the
worldwide interconnected surge-channel network, the surge
channels burst and the tectogenesis is in full swing.
_The compression everywhere of the asthenosphere compensates
for the fact that the basaltic magma of the surge channels is
non-Newtonian.” _In conclusion, it is evident that the
evolution and enunciation of surge tectonics as a viable
geodynamic concept follow the most appropriate scientific
approach – from basic data to process to encompassing framework
(hypothesis). _And, most importantly, that the concept “draws
on well-known laws of physics, especially those related to the
laws of motion, gravity, and fluid dynamics,” which are
discussed throughout the text and again presented and explained
in the appendix. _As to its application to the geological
past, that needs working out time-series information about
increase in lithospheric thickness. _Having said this, we do
not claim surge tectonics to be the panacea for geodynamic
problems. _As Donna Meyerhoff-Hull wrote in her editor’s
postscript (Meyerhoff et al., 1996), “He encouraged his
colleagues to continue thinking about the hypothesis and wanted
them to continue to improve it with their own data and idea”.
_However, we strongly believe, it addresses nearly every
geological and geophysical piece of data currently available.
_After the enunciation of surge tectonics in 1992 and his death
in 1994, numerous evidence supporting surge tectonics have
continually emerged, many of which have been documented in our
own platform, NCGT Newsletter: The data mainly come from field
geological data, earthquake study, satellite altimetry and
seismic tomography. _They provide much clearer picture of
surge tectonics.
>_Some salient points are: 1) The outer core-sourced energy
possibly in the form of heat, volatiles, or electromagnetics
rises to the shallow Earth and transmigrates laterally along
major fractured and porous zones – tectonic zones and orogenic
belts, which trigger volcanic eruptions and major earthquakes by
heating magmas and the upper mantle/lower crust.
>_The well-tested and proven Blot’s energy transmigration
phenomena (1976) and Tsunoda’s VE process (2009) testify to the
presence of energy migration channels or surge channels.
>_2) Seismo-tomographic profiles across the Pacific Ocean show
the correlation between the distribution of Jurassic and
Cretaceous basins and that of faster mantle velocity down to
330 km depth, which in turn is underlain by slow mantle (Choi
and Vasiliev, 2008; Fig. 1), while the continents are generally
underlain by fast mantle through to the core-mantle boundary.
>_These facts are in harmony with the cooling of the shallow
mantle model – already cooled lithosphere and cooling
strictosphere.
>_Cooling of the Earth surface is also supported by earthquake
focal mechanism studies; compressional in the shallow quakes
and tensional in intermediate to deep quakes (Suzuki, 2001;
Tarakanov, 2005).
>_Figure 1. Mantle profile across the Pacific Ocean from Russia
to South America (Choi and Vasiliev, 2008) compiled from
tomographic images by Kawakami et al. (1994).
>_Note the coincidence between the Mesozoic basin distribution
and that of the fast shallow mantle (to 330 km), suggesting the
cause-effect relationship between the cooling of shallow mantle
and subsidence.
>_There are numerous indisputable data that the oceanic areas
had formed land until Mesozoic.
>_K-K TZ = Korea-Kamchatka Tectonic Zone; T-K TZ =
TanLu-Kamchatka Tectonic Zone; A-H line = Aleutian- Hawaiian
Islands Line.
_Stroretvedt states that “surprisingly low heat flow, the
problem of finding anticipated magma chambers, a nearly complete
lack of active volcanism, predominantly low-temperature mineral
alteration, and a frequent occurrence of serpentized
peridotites” along ocean ridges are “'deadly weapons' against
seafloor spreading as well as surge tectonics.” _No, these are
not the data that discount either sea floor spreading or surge
tectonics; indeed, also not expanding Earth. _It is
discomforting to see surge tectonics being clubbed with the
concept that it is anti-thesis of. _His statement is based
both on denial of evidence and misunderstanding.
>_Denial because, as stated above, there is a whole range of
evidence that are marshalled (and cited with full publication
details) for the existence of magma channels both under ocean
ridges and elsewhere.
>_Also, relevant literature gives data for heat flow exceeding
55 mW/m2; again, this includes ocean ridges.
_No concepts including plate, expanding and surge tectonics
advocate 24x7 magma eruption along ocean ridges. _Per year
spreading rates given by plate tectonicists (and used also by
expansionists) does not mean magma is erupting on daily or even
yearly basis. _These are supposed to be averages reduced to
annual basis from those that are inferred from dating of
magnetic stripes. _As to low temperature mineral alterations,
this problem has been discussed by several publications. _We
would specifically recommend the paper by W.S.D. Wilcock and
J.R. Delaney (1996, Mid-ocean ridge sulfide deposits: Evidence
for heat extraction from magma chambers or cracking fronts?
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 145, p. 49- 64).
_Although they use plate tectonics framework, it is more
important to notice the conditions and processes they envisage
remain broadly applicable irrespective of their broader
tectonic model. _Yes, ST doesn't talk of evolutionary history
but where does it come in the way of its application to that
question. _We would challenge Storetvedt to explain just a few
of the data sets that we have listed – like, e.g., morphology
of the ocean ridges, steamlines, 7.0-7.8 km/s anomalous layer,
formation of asthenosphere, geographic distribution of island
arcs, angular difference in lithospheric and strictospheric
Benioff zones – using his wrench tectonics. _Returning to
Storetvedt’s comments. _He laments surge tectonics ignoring
“mention of the protracted tropical- subtropical conditions in
Antarctica.” _Climatic conditions -- current or past -- are not
primarily a direct consequence of Earth dynamics but can be
thought of as proxy for certain processes (e.g., erosion) and
physiographic features of the Earth. _Therefore, expecting a
geodynamic model to be erected on such data is too much of a
misplaced expectation.
>_However, for the sake of completeness, it needs be mentioned
that in the same year (1996) when book on surge tectonics was
published, Meyerhoff et al. (1996) published a monumental piece
of work titled ‘Phanerozoic faunal and floral realms of the
Earth; the intercalary relations of the Malvinokaffric and
Gondwana faunal realms with the Tethyan faunal realm.’
_It was published by the Geological Society of America as GSA
Memoir 129.
>_As can be gauged from the title, this publication discusses
all available faunal and floral data – including from
Antarctica -- to discount any mobilistic concept.
_We have already stated that we do not intend to criticize
Storetvedt’s “Wrench Tectonics theory – which [he believes] is
an attempt to unify the various facets of Earth history.”
_Again, that is for readers and time. _However, before any one
worries about testing his theory against Earth’s history, we
would draw Storetvedt’s attention to one current, existing fact.
_On page 45 of the latest NCGT Newsletter (Issue #57) he
presents a 3-D satellite view of “two tectonic 'whirlpool'
junctions on the East Pacific Rise”. _Though he doesn’t name
the two “whirlpools,” the bigger one is the Easter Island and
the smaller one is Juan Fernandez Island, both located on the
East Pacific Rise in the eastern part of the central Pacific.
_Easter Island’s geological feature has been fairly well
researched and discussed. _Without describing their geological
or geophysical characters, Storetvedt explains them away as the
products of interaction of Easter Fracture Zone and Chile ridge
with the East Pacific Rise. _He writes: “It looks as if shear
stress has produced a torque ripping off micro- blocks at the
two cross-cutting junctions, after which the detached crustal
units have been subjected to tectonic rotation.” _(Notice the
wishful language!) _You can’t imagine a more simplistic
approach when actual facts are taken into consideration.
_Figure 2 shows the structural geometry, deduced from side-sonar
images and high- pass GEOSAT altimetry data. _Notice the
vortical morphology; it shows the Easter Island like an
elliptical ring on the ocean bottom. _And notice the feature
is enveloped within the two axes of the East Pacific Rise – the
“overlapping spreading centers” of plate tectonics.
>_Some plate tectonics literature describes the Easter Island as
rotating microplate.
_Some descriptions include: “Enclosing the core of microplate,
the inner pseudofaults form a pattern resembling the
meteorological symbol for a hurricane” (Larson et al., 1992);
and “The result is a feature that appears much like a
geological “hurricane” embedded in the crust of the earth” (Bird
and Naar, 1994; Leybourne and Adams, 2001).
>_Surge tectonics calls such structures as vortex structure.
_One might say there is so far no apparent conflict with wrench
tectonics if Storetvedt’s wrench tectonics can produce the
observed structural geometry. _But that ends when you consider
a complete gradation in form and style between overlapping
spreading centers (incipient vortices of surge tectonics) and
fully developed vortices so well documented in the surge
tectonics book.
>_More importantly, what would be the wrench tectonics
explanation for similar overlapping spreading center-like
structure like, e. g. the East African Rift Valley system (Fig.
3) or full-blown vortices like Dasht-i-Lut (Fig. 4) or Banda
Sea vortex (Fig. 5)?
_Which of the intersecting fracture zones or ridges or shear
belts would be invoked in these cases?
>_Figure 2. Vortex structure in the Easter Island (for source
reference see Meyerhoff et al., 1996).
_A typical symbol of atmospheric hurricane in the Earth’s
crust.
>_Figure 3. East African rift-valley system (for source
reference see Meyerhoff et al., 1996).
_Another example of a continental tectonic vortex along a
continental rift geostream.
>_Figure 4. Dasht-i-Lut vortex structure, Iran (for source
reference see Meyerhoff et al., 1996), a typical continental
vortex along a fold belt.
_The orientation of the structures show that motions beneath
the vortex were counterclockwise.
>_Figure 5. Bathymetry (left) and 3-D bathymetric view of Webber
Deep in the Banda Sea (Leybourne and Adams, 1999).
_Storetvedt writes: It is my opinion that the only way into the
future is through application of well-established facts,
primarily based on rock evidence and various other surface
data1. _But to go from there to aspects of real understanding
we need a functional thought construction – a Theory! _And a
theory is an invention, invented for the purpose of explaining
the diversity of observations and phenomena – and their
interrelationship2. _Therefore, a successful theory of the
Earth will automatically establish an extensive
phenomenological prediction confirmation sequence, spanning at
least a major part of geological history.
>_The ability of such a system must be its capacity to evolve in
one direction only – from the characteristics of the Archaean to
the features of the modern Earth3 for which uplift of mountain
ranges worldwide probably stands out as the most prominent
event.
>_Such an irreversible self-organizing development scheme is
what my Global Wrench Tectonics is thought to delineate.”
(Italics and superscript numbers by us.)
_With reference to the italicized point no. 1, we would say if
Storetvedt did not find this approach in surge tectonics, for
sure he has either not read it or he is definitely not talking
about geological/geophysical facts. _As to point no. 2, well,
we have given a sampling of the 29 data sets. _If they do not
represent diversity of “observations and phenomena -- and inter-
relationship”, again, for sure these very words must mean
something unknown to us. _Finally point 3: Let us wait to see
how Global Wrench Tectonics explains the question we ask in
relation to his “whirlpools” before we worry about how this
“Theory” fares in Archaean.
References
Bird, R.T. and Naar, D.F., 1994. Intratransform origins of
mid-ocean ridge microplates. Geology, v. 22, p. 987-990
Blot, C., 1976. Volcanisme et séismicité dans les arcs
insulaires. Prévision de ces phénomènes. Géophysique, v. 13,
Orstom, Paris, 206p.
Choi, D.R. and Vasiliev, B.I., 2008. Geology and tectonic
development of the Pacific Ocean. Part 4, Geological
interpretation of seismic tomography. NCGT Newsletter, no. 48,
p. 52-60.
Kawakami, S., Fujii, N. and Fukao, Y., 1994. Frontiers of the
earth and planetary sciences: A galley of the planetary world.
Jour. Geol. Soc. Japan, v. 100, p. I-VIII.
Larson, R.L., Searle, R.C., Kleinrock, M.C., Schouten, H, Bird,
R.T, Naar, D.F., Rusby, R.I., Hooft, E.E. and
Lasthiotakis, H. 1992. Roller-Bearing Tectonic Evolution of the
Juan-Fernandez Microplate. Nature, v. 56,
no. 6370, p. 571 -576.
Leybourne, B.A. and Adams, M.B., 1999. Modeling mantle dynamics
of the Banda Sea: Exploring a possible link to El Nina Southern
Oscillation. MTS Oceans ’99 Conference, Seattle, Sept 1999, p.
955-966.
Leybourne, B.A. and Adams, M.B., 2001. El Nino tectonic
modulation in the Pacific basin.
In: Proceedings of the OCEANS, 2001. MTS/IEEEConference and
Exhibition, Honolulu, HI, USA, 5 – 8 Nov, 2001, v. 4, p.
2400-2406 doi: 10.1109/OCEANS.2001.9683.
Meyerhoff, A.A., Taner, I., Morris, A.E.L. and Martin, B.D.,
1992. Surge tectonics. In, Chatterjee, S. and Hotton, N., III,
eds., “New concepts in global tectonics”. Texas Tech Univ.
Press, Lubbock, p. 309-409.
Meyerhoff, A.A., Taner, I., Morris, A.E., Agocs, W.B.,
Kamen-Kaye, M., Bhat, M.I., Smoot, N.C. and Choi, D.R.,
edited by Meyerhoff-Hull, D., 1996. Surge tectonics: A new
hypothesis of global geodynamics. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht. 323p.
Meyerhoff, A.A., Boucot, A.J., Meyerhoff-Hull, D. and Dickins,
J.M., 1996. Phanerozoic faunal and floral realms of
the Earth: The intercalary relations of the Malvinokaffric and
Gondwana faunal realms with the Tethyan faunal
realm. Geol. Soc. America Mem. 189, 69p.
Smoot, N.C. and Tucholke, B., 1986. Multi-beam sonar evidence
for evolution of Corner Rise and Cruiser Seamount Groups, Eos,
Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v. 67, no. 44, p.
1221.
Storetvedt, K., 2010. Facts, mistaken beliefs, and the future of
global tectonics. NCGT Newsletter, no. 57, p. 3-10.
James, P.M., 2010. New concepts and the paths ahead. NCGT
Newsletter, no. 56, p. 3-5.
Suzuki, Y., 2001. A geotectonic model of South America referring
to the intermediate-deep earthquake zone. NCGT Newsletter, no.
20, p. 17-24.
Tarakanov, R.Z., 2005. On the nature of seismic focal zone. NCGT
Newsletter, no. 34, p. 6-20.
Tsunoda, F., 2009. Habits of earthquakes. Part 1: mechanism of
earthquakes and lateral thermal seismic energy
transmigration. NCGT Newsletter, no. 53, p. 38-46.
#Post#: 159--------------------------------------------------
Choi NewMad Paper
By: Admin Date: March 2, 2017, 8:53 pm
---------------------------------------------------------
NCGT Journal, v. 2, no. 1,March 2014. www.ncgt.org 61
SEISMO-ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY FLOW OBSERVED IN THE 16 MARCH 2014
M6.7 EARTHQUAKE OFF TARAPACÁ, CHILE
Dong R. CHOI
International Earthquake and Volcano Prediction Center (IEVPC),
Canberra, Australia
dchoi@ievpc.org
- Abstract: The strong M6.7 offshore Tarapacá earthquake in
March 2014 was generated by the convergence of two
seismo-electromagnetic energies at the junction of two major
fault systems. The deep northwestward flow is proven by two
precursory intermediate-depth quakes which are linked to the
offshore Tarapacá mainshock by Blot’s energy transmigration law.
Another energy flow, southward along the continental margin of
South America, is verified by the latitude vs year plot of
shallow (50 km or less) quakes from 1970 to 2014 (March).
The average speed of the shallow southward-flowing energy along
the continental margin is 0.25 km/day (28-year average), whereas
the northwestward energy speed (from 128 km to 35 km depths) was
an average of 0.34 km/day. The convergence of two energies
contributed to enhancing the magnitude of the shallow mainshock
(6.7), which was larger than the two foreshocks: 6.4 at 128 km
and 6.2 at 214 km. The increased magnitude of shallow mainshocks
as compared to deeper foreshocks is observed in many of the past
major quakes, which will help forecast future catastrophic
earthquakes.
- Keywords: Offshore Tarapacá earthquake, energy transmigration,
convergence and flow, surge tectonics
- Introduction
A conspicuous anomaly in total electron content (TEC) appeared
in the coastal area of northern Chile in early March 2014 off
Tarapacá, Chile. Based on IEVPC’s experience, we considered it
to indicate an imminent strong earthquake. The author
immediately examined other data: outgoing longwave radiation
(OLR), sea surface temperature (SST), cloud images, geology, and
earthquake archives. He also conducted Blot’s energy
transmigration analysis (Blot, 1976; Grover, 1999) for two
intermediate-depth earthquakes that occurred in the southeast of
the Tarapacá area in 2009 and 2011. The results of the analysis
convinced him of the imminence of a strong quake north of
Antofagasta. Because the expected magnitude was around 6.4,
which is below the threshold of what IVEPC classifies as a
catastrophic geophysical event (CGE, M7.0 or greater), he
notified only his IEVPC associates on 3 March without any public
announcement.
- As expected, an M6.7 (originally 7.0) mainshock occurred off
Tarapacá, about 400 km north of Antofagasta, on 16 March, 13
days after the announcement. The author’s prediction proved to
be of almost pinpoint accuracy in terms of epicentre, time and
magnitude. A post-mortem analysis of the quake revealed that two
energy flows had converged in the offshore Tarapacá area where
two major fracture systems meet. Energy flow is a particularly
important concept when considering earthquake formation
mechanisms and in earthquake prediction. The author briefly
describes here some of the new findings, focusing on the energy
flow observed in this particular quake.
- 2.Precursory signals and fracture systems
- Before discussing energy flow, I will first summarize some of
the precursory signals that appeared prior to the Tarapacá
mainshock (see Fig. 1). The OLR trend shows a clear NW-SE
trending linear high anomaly, 10-30 W/m2 above average, from 2
to 8 March. The linear trend coincides with a deep fracture zone
where two precursory shocks occurred in 2009 and 2011. The
fracture zone extends northward into the ocean floor where a
deep trench develops.
- Figure 1. Seismo-tectonic map (top), total electron content
(lower right), sea surface temperature anomaly (middle left) and
outgoing longwave radiation anomaly (bottom left). Anomalies are
detected in total electron content and outgoing longwave
radiation, but none in sea surface temperature. The offshore
Tarapacá quake occurred at the junction of two fault systems.
Note two energy flows converging at the mainshock.
- The most outstanding anomaly signal among others is seen in
the TEC pattern. It appeared in late February, became
conspicuous in early March, peaked on 10 to 11 March, then
slightly decreased from 13 to 15 March, before the mainshock on
16 March.
- Sea surface temperature (SST) did not show any particular
anomalies during the entire incubation period. This is the stark
contrast with other large quakes such as the November 2012
Myanmar quake (NCGT Newsletter no. 65, Editorial, p. 2-4).
Clear earthquake clouds were observed on satellite images
(Dundee Satellite Receiving Station;
HTML http://www.sat.dundee.ac.uk/geobrowse/geobrowse.php)
on 28
January at 1200 hrs from the nearby trench, 47 days prior to the
mainshock. Some limited energy release features are observed
beginning in early February, about one month to 40 days prior to
the mainshock, mainly from the trench area. On the whole,
however, relatively little activity was seen on the satellite
images from the region.
- 3. Energy flow
- Two energy flow channels were identified in this prediction
exercise. One of them is the northwestward deep flow along a
deep-seated fracture system, and the second is a southward flow
in the shallow Earth along the continental margin. The former is
confirmed by three strong earthquakes lying on a NW-SE fault
line: no. 1, M6.2 on 29 Nov. 2009 at 214 km depth; no. 2, M6.4
on 20 June 2011 at 128 km; and no. 3, main shallow shock on 16
March, M6.7 at 35 km (see Fig. 1). This fault is obviously a
deep fault zone with its northern extension reaching the Chile
Trench. The author (Choi, 2005, fig. 21) recognized a NW-SE
trending structural high running through Antofagasta based on
various data sources. The NW-SE fault in question is situated on
the northern wing of this basement high.
- These three quakes are linked by the energy transmigration
(ET) formula (Fig. 2). According to the formula, applied from
Nos. 1 to 2, the No. 2 quake shows an approximately seven-month
delay in its occurrence. This might be the result of
inaccuracies in the depth and locality of quakes, a longer
incubation time at the trap before release, or a longer travel
distance due to the complex fault system through which the
energy travels. On the other hand, the flow from No. 2 to No. 1
occurred almost exactly in conformity with the ET formula.
- The average speed from No. 1 (214 km depth) to No. 2 (128 km
depth) quakes is 0.41 km/day, and from No. 2 to No. 3 (from 128
km to 35 km depth) 0.36 km/day.
The shallow southbound flow was calculated by plotting a
latitude vs year diagram for M7+ shallow (50 km or shallower)
quakes from 1970 to 2014 (Fig. 2). The average speed is 0.25
km/day. A similar trend is also seen in the M6.0+ quake trend in
the same area. The energy flow can be disrupted by local energy
trap structures which slow down the flow speed, but on the
whole, the energy movement indicated in the shift of major
quakes with time in a broad corridor is unmistakably traceable.
The author also found the same fact in California earthquake
patterns (Choi et al., in preparation). Tsunoda (2011) and
Tsunoda et al. (2013) described the systematic northward energy
flow along the Izu-Ogasawara Ridge to Japan. These observations
confirm that constant energy movement is taking place under
active tectonic belts, as proposed by surge tectonics (Meyerhoff
et al., 1996).
64 NCGT Journal, v. 2, no. 1,March 2014. www.ncgt.org
- Figure 2. Latitude vs year plot of M7+ shallow quakes, 50 km
or less. An overall southward flow is observed.
- 4. Discussion
- The most significant discovery during the analysis of the
offshore Tarapacá quake is the convergence of two energy flows,
and their enhancing effect on magnitude. Energy convergence and
its magnitude-enhancing effect have been seen in many
catastrophic earthquakes, including the 2004 Boxing Day
earthquake in Sumatra (Blot and Choi, 2004) and the Great East
Japan (Tohoku) Earthquake in March 2011 (Choi, 2011), to name
only two. The same phenomenon was observed in the present
offshore Tarapacá quake too. In this regard, Grover’s remark
(1998) is noteworthy:
“Deep-focus shocks of magnitude 6+ appear to engender great
earthquakes of magnitude 7+ and 8+ and accompanying seismic
crises when their ‘phenomena’ converge….with convergence even
quite small magnitude shocks could be boosted to produce much
higher magnitude.”
- We are currently collating energy-transmigration and speed
data for various geological and geographic settings. The general
trend was discussed in Tsunoda et al. (2013). A comprehensive
updated report will be published in the near future.
- 5. Conclusions
- This note presented observations on two energy flow patterns
and their convergence, which generated a strong shock off
Tarapacá, Chile, in March 2014. This convergence generated a
quake of greater magnitude than the two deeper foreshocks that
occurred five and three years earlier.
- The Tarapacá quake was predicted 13 days in advance with
almost pinpoint accuracy. The prediction was based solely on
publicly available data without local monitoring stations. This
is mainly thanks to Blot’s ET concept, as well as the IEVPC’s
comprehensive data analysis capability, augmented by accumulated
know-how and acumen that allow strong quakes to be detected even
several years before they occur, and based on an understanding
of the significance of various short-term signals. If we had had
local monitoring stations, the prediction would have been much
more precise and accurate.
- Acknowledgements: The author thanks Fumio Tsunoda for his
constructive comments on the manuscript, and other IEVPC
associates who contributed to a better understanding of
precursory signals. This paper is an outcome of IEVPC’s
collective effort. The author also thanks David Pratt for
English editing.
- References cited
Blot, C., 1976. Volcanisme et sismicité dans les arcs
insulaires. Prévision de ces phénomènes. Géophysique,
v. 13, Orstom, Paris, 206p.
Blot, C. and Choi, D.R., 2004. Recent devastating earthquakes in
Japan and Indonesia viewed from the seismic
energy transmigration concept. NCGT Newsletter, no. 33, p. 3-12.
Choi, D.R., 2005. Deep earthquakes and deep-seated tectonic
zones: A new interpretation of the Wadati-Benioff
zone. Boll. Soc. Geol. It., vol. spec. 5, p. 79-118.
Choi, D.R., 2010. Blot’s energy transmigration concept applied
for forecasting shallow earthquakes; a swarm of
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earthquake in March 2011. NCGT Newsletter,
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Grover, J.C., 1998. Volcanic eruptions and great earthquakes.
Advanced warning techniques to master the
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Meyerhoff, A.A., Taner, I., Morris, A.E.L., Agocs, W.B.,
Kamen-Kaye, M., Bhat, M.I., Smoot, N.C. and Choi,
D.R. (Ed., Meyherhoff-Hull, D.), 1996. Surge tectonics: a new
hypothesis of global geodynamics. Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 323p.
Tsunoda, F., 2011. The March 2011 Great Offshore Tohoku-Pacific
Earthquake from the perspective of the VE
process. NCGT Newsletter, no. 59, p. 69-77.
Tsunoda, F., Choi, D.R. and Kawabe, T., 2013. Thermal energy
transmigration and fluctuation. NCGT
Journal, v. 1, no. 2, p. 65-80.
- Postscript: When the new NCGT issue including this paper was
just about to be aired, a gigantic M8.0 earthquake hit the same
area on 1 April, 2014 with a small tsunami. This is the
mainshock, and the 16 March M6.7 quake described in this article
is now considered the foreshock. They occurred 15 days apart.
After the 16 March foreshock, TEC remained high, SST became high
from the late March, but OLR went low.
- The huge magnitude of the mainshock is considered the combined
effect of energy convergence and a large trap structure
(Precambrian structural high occupying the south of the NW-SE
deep fault system). The southward flowing energy along the
continental margin had been trapped in this structure, and
stored a huge energy. Another energy flow arrived from the
southeast along the deep fault played a role as a trigger. We
have seen the similar pattern in the March 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake. Energy flow, trap structure, and energy convergence
are the keys to understand the mechanism of gigantic earthquakes
like the present off Tarapacá quake.
-----
Re: MF 2/24 NuMadPapr « Reply #4 on: March 01, 2017, 03:38:28 pm
»
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4. Paper by Dr. Dong Choi and Mr. John L. Casey
New Madrid Seismic Zone, central USA:
The great 1811-12 earthquakes, their relationship to solar
cycles,
and tectonic settings
Dong R. CHOI
Raax Australia Pty Ltd. Dong.Choi@raax.com.au; www.raax.com.au
International Earthquake and Volcano Prediction Center.
dchoi@ievpc.org; www.ievpc.org
John L. CASEY
Space and Science Research Corporation,
mail@spaceandscience.net; www.spaceandscience.net
International Earthquake and Volcano Prediction Center,
jcasey@ievpc.org; www.ievpc.org
Abstract: The 1811-1812 New Madrid series of earthquakes were
the largest in magnitude (estimated to be M8.0 or greater) in
the continental North America in the history. The quakes
occurred in the midst of Dalton Solar Minimum (1793-1830). Other
major historic earthquakes in the same region also occurred
during major solar minimums, or “solar hibernations.” From a
tectonic viewpoint, the New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ) is
situated on the axis of the N-S American Geanticline or Super
Anticline which is Archean in origin. It has been subject to
repeated magmatic and tectonic activities in Proterozoic and
Phanerozoic – the Caribbean dome (now oceanized to form the
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico) has been the site for
rising thermal energy from the outer core since the Mesozoic.
Energy transmigrates northward along the anticlinal axis (or
surge channel) and is trapped at the embayment bounded by less
permeable Precambrian-Paleozoic basement highs in the north of
the New Madrid area. The arrival of a major, prolonged solar low
period or “hibernation” in the coming 30 years, which are
considered comparable to the Dalton or even Maunder Minimum
(1645-1715), increases the likelihood of repeating the 1811-12
class seismic events. Heightened awareness, monitoring of
precursory signals, and disaster mitigation planning are
required.
Keywords: 1811-12 New Madrid Earthquakes, Dalton Minimum, solar
hibernation, N-S American Super Anticline, surge channel,
seismic energy transmigration, earthquake-solar cycle
anti-correlation
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Introduction
The New Madrid area, mid-Mississippi River, central United
State, was rocked by a spate of powerful earthquakes from 1811
to 1812 (Fig. 1). According to the USGS records, there were
three main shocks, M7.5, 7.3 and 7.5, on 16 December 1811, 23
January 1812, and 7 February 1812, respectively, with a major
aftershock M7.0 on the first day
(
HTML http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/states/events/1811-1812.php).<br
/>Other researchers, such as Nuttli (1987) listed six M7.0+ quak
es
that include two M8.0+ earthquakes. Of them, two largest quakes
were considered the greatest earthquakes in continental North
America (Johnston and Schweig, 1996).
The sequence of the great earthquakes in the NMSZ has a unique
attribute – it occurred in the middle of a major solar low
period, Dalton Minimum, 1793 to 1830 (Fig. 2). This prompted the
authors to study seismic history of the NMSZ and their relation
to solar cycles, together with geological settings of the
surrounding region. The rationales of this study are, 1) the
arrival of a prolonged solar low period as advocated by Casey
(2008, 2012 and 2014), and 2) the well-established reversed
correlation between the solar activity cycle and earthquake
energy (Choi and Maslov, 2010), and 3) new interpretation of
geological structure of the region and seismic energy
transmigration mechanism in the Caribbean-Gulf of
Mexico-Mississippi River (Choi, 2013; Choi, 2014; Choi et al.,
2014).
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Fig. 1. Map of the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811-12. Base map
cited from Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
(
HTML http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1421133/New-Madrid-earthquakes-of-1811-12).<br
/>Wabash Valley Seismic Zone is added.
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Seismic activity in the NMSZ and solar cycles
Historic records show that the New Madrid region has been
subject to repeated seismic activities. Based on artifacts found
buried by sand blow deposits and from carbon-14 studies,
previous large earthquakes like those of 1811-1812 appear to
have happened around 4800BC, 3500BC, 2350 BC, AD300, AD900 and
AD1450. In addition, the first known written record of an
earthquake felt in the New Madrid Seismic Zone occurred on
Christmas Day of 1699. An M6.6 earthquake in 1895 has also been
registered (Wikipedia,
HTML http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Madrid_Seismic_Zone).
Most of the years listed above belong to solar low periods
(Figs. 2 and 3): The years 1811-1812 is in the midst of a major
solar low period, Dalton Minimum. The year 1699 sits in another
major solar low period, Maunder Minimum, 1645-1715. AD1450
corresponds to the lowering period of Spörer Minimum, and
another one in 1895, centennial low cycle (1885-1915; Casey,
2008; Fig. 2).
Importantly, all major Earthquakes in the NMSZ since 1400 AD
have occurred during these solar low points or solar
hibernations.
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Fig. 2. Solar cycle and world volcanic/seismic activities. All
of the NMSZ quakes occurred around the middle of the solar low
periods. Cited from Choi and Tsunoda, 2011 and Choi, 2013b.
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Fig. 3. History of New Madrid earthquakes compared to solar
minimums or “solar hibernations” from 1400-1950 AD. Solar
activity deduced from C14 proxy variation. The years of major
New Madrid earthquakes are shown in red stars with dates.
Source: Casey, Data: Reimar et al., INTCAL04.
The NMSZ quakes and solar cycles indicate their reversed
correlation. The anti-correlation between solar cycles and
seismic/volcanic activities has been well established by the
senior author of this paper with co-workers (Fig. 4; Choi and
Maslov, 2010; Choi and Tsunoda, 2011). Casey (2010) also noted
that the catastrophic volcanic eruptions had taken place during
the solar low periods.
Fig. 4. Anti-correlation between the solar and earthquake cycles
(Choi and Maslov, 2010).
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The cause of this anti-correlation awaits further study. One of
the feasible explanations was presented by Gregori (2002) who
attributed to the Earth’s core being a leaky capacitor or a
battery; when solar activity is high, the Earth’s core is
charged, whereas when the Sun’s activity is in low phase, the
core in turn discharges energy.
[URL=
HTML http://s573.photobucket.com/user/Lkindr/media/1aCC%20EQGW_zpsfsyvjzy6.png.html][IMG]http://i573.photobucket.com/albums/ss180/Lkindr/1aCC%20EQGW_zpsfsyvjzy6.png[/img][/URL]
[URL=
HTML http://s573.photobucket.com/user/Lkindr/media/1aCC%20Anticlines_zpshngby3ys.png.html][IMG]http://i573.photobucket.com/albums/ss180/Lkindr/1aCC%20Anticlines_zpshngby3ys.png[/img][/URL]
Discussion
1) Geological structures responsible for the NMSZ earthquakes
The earthquakes occurred in the NMSZ come from the unique
tectonic settings. It is strongly related to the global-scale
geological structure; North-South American Geanticline or Super
Anticline that runs from South America, via the Caribbean and
Mississippi Valley, to the Canadian Shield (Choi, 2013; Figs. 5
and 6). It is a fundamental geological structure formed in the
early stage of the Earth’s formation – in Archean. There is
another antipodal super anticline that extends from SW Pacific,
via SE Asia and South China, to Siberia. These anticlinal
structures have influenced the subsequent development of the
Earth by repeated magmatic and tectonic activities throughout
the Phanerozoic, especially since Mesozoic.
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Fig. 5. Earth’s fundamental structures; two antipodal super
anticlines (Choi, 2013a). Note that the Caribbean Sea and the
Mississippi Valley are situated on the axis of the anticline.
Base map, World magnetic anomaly map, by Korhonen et al., 2007.
In his 2010 and 2014 papers, the senior author argued the origin
of the Caribbean - Gulf of Mexico, which developed in the axial
part of the anticline and formed the Caribbean dome; the crust
in the site where energy rose from the outer core has been
oceanized since Mesozoic. The initial basin formation however
may go back to Paleozoic time (Pratch, 2008 and 2010). The axial
area, being highly fractured and permeable, became a channel of
energy flow, or surge channel (Meyerhoff et al., 1996). The
thermal seismic energy, derived from the outer core through the
Caribbean dome and transmigrated along the surge channel
developed under the Mississippi Valley, is responsible for the
NMSZ earthquakes (Fig. 6). This assertion is supported by the
fact that, along the Pacific coast of Central America, the
seismo-volcanic energy which was originated from the deep
Caribbean was found to transmigrate northward during the solar
low cycles but southward during the rising cycles (Choi, 2014).
The energy from the outer core was stronger during the time of
solar low phase, as evidenced by the well-established solar
cycle-earthquake anti-correlation (Fig. 4).
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Fig. 6. N-S American Geanticline, the NMSZ and deep structure of
the North America represented by Precambrian structures (Kosygin
et al., 1970). Energy flow direction along the N-S American
Geanticlinal axis from Choi (2014), and for California-Mexico
from Choi et al. (2014). Note the prevailing NE-SW deep
structural trends which seemingly continue into the Pacific
Ocean.
A geological map, Fig. 7, well illustrates a Mesozoic embayment
developed along the Mississippi Valley. The NMSZ area is the
northern end of the Mesozoic basin that covers the present Gulf
of Mexico and the Caribbean. The NMSZ region is surrounded by
older, less permeable, Precambrian-Paleozoic rocks – which form
a trap structure for thermal seismic energy in the form of
liquid and gas. The trap structures were controlled by deep
fault systems, which are NE-SW and NW-SE in direction (Johnson
and Schweig, 1996).
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3) Arrival of a major, prolonged, solar low period, or solar
hibernation.
The correlation of major earthquakes and solar activity, while
relatively recently discussed, is nonetheless one of the
strongest in terms of climate change and geophysical
associations. The initial paper (Casey, 2008) on the regular
pattern of climate oscillations linked to solar activity using
the Relational Cycle Theory (RC Theory) has demonstrated itself
to be among the most successful in climate prediction
underscoring the basic reliability of the theory and its
associated seven elements of climate change. Subsequently
(Casey, 2010) in a preliminary paper, proposed the connection
between the RC Theory and major earthquakes and volcanic
activity. Others noted above (Choi, Maslov, et al.), have also
found the strong relationship between solar activity lows and
increased seismic and volcanic activities.
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Fig. 7. Geologic map by Jatskevich et al. (2000) superimposed by
tectonic elements and the NMSZ which is located at the northern
end of the Mesozoic-Paleogene basin (labelled as K, K1, K2 and
).
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Conclusions
This study revealed several important factual data regarding the
strong earthquakes in the NMSZ and their relation to solar
cycle. It also presented new interpretation of tectonic settings
of the region. They are summarized as follows:
1. The NMSZ developed on the major Precambrian-origin
geanticlinal axis where magmatic, thermal, and tectonic
activities have been concentrated, particularly since Mesozoic
when the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean have started to form.
This activity is still continuing today.
2. The historic record clearly shows that large seismic events
in the NMSZ have occurred during the Sun’s inactive periods. The
sequence of 1811-12 quakes is one of them.
3. In the light of the now confirmed start of a prolonged, solar
hibernation for the coming 30 years or so, which are comparable
to Dalton Minimum or worst case, a Maunder Minimum (“Little Ice
Age”), a repeat of the 1811-12 earthquakes should be expected.
4. The window of highest risk for another major New Madrid zone
earthquake is between 2017 and 2038.
5. Planning for a repeat of the 1811-1812 series of earthquakes
that devastated the region back then should begin immediately.
Considerations should include:
a. A US nationwide plan is required based on one or more M8.0+
earthquakes in the NMSZ on the assumption that substantial
regional loss of life and massive infrastructure damage will
take place on a scale never before witnessed in the USA.
b. This plan should include heightened levels of public
education, monitoring of the seismic precursory signals,
federal, state and local emergency management exercises and
damage mitigation where practicable.
c. Planning should address the real possibility of complete loss
of major ground and air
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transportation nodes and routes including substantial long term
damage to airport facilities and runways and interstate and city
highway systems especially across the Mississippi River.
d. Planning should also include the assumption that major
aftershocks will prevent meaningful rebuilding of permanent
structures over several months to a year.
e. Should a repeat of a series of quakes take place similar to
the 1811-1812 events or even a repeat of the 1895 M6.6
earthquake, the power grid in the central Mississippi region may
be unavailable for essential needs of radio and TV
communications, emergency management, search and rescue etc for
several months to a half year or more.
f. In the case where there may be NMSZ nuclear facilities not
designed to withstand a series of M7.5 to M8.0+ earthquakes, a
new added risk may exist. All nuclear facilities must be
reviewed (if not already done so) to insure they and their
back-up power systems for coolant systems etc., can withstand a
worst case series of major quakes. Failure to do so could result
in multiple instances of the March 11, 2011 Japanese, Fukushima
nuclear reactor style catastrophes in the middle of the United
States. This could directly affect the safety of all citizens
east of the central Mississippi River subject to prevailing
winds during the time of the year such a scenario might happen.
References
Cahill, R.T., 2014. Solar flare five-day predictions from
quantum detectors of dynamical space
fractal flow turbulence: Gravitational wave diminution and Earth
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Physics, v. 10, Issue 4 (October), p. 236-242.
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HTML http://ptep-online.com/index_files/2014/PP-39-
10.PDF).
Casey, J.L., 2008. The existence of ‘relational cycles’ of solar
activity on a multi-decadal to
centennial scale, as significant models of climate change on
Earth. Space and Science
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www.spaceandscience.net
Casey, J.L., 2010. Correlation of solar activity minimums and
large magnitude geophysical
events. Space and Science Research Center, Research Report
1-2010 (Preliminary), p. 1-5.
The Global Climate Status Report (GCSR)© is a product of the
Space and Science Research Corporation, (SSRC), P.O. Box 607841,
Orlando, Florida, 32860, USA. Tel: (407) 985-3509
mail@spaceandscience.net. This publication is intended only for
those who have purchased it from the SSRC for individual use.
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is prohibited without the permission of the SSRC. Page 29
Casey, J.L., 2012. Cold Sun. Trafford Publishing, 167p.
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Newsletter, no. 55, p. 74-76.
#Post#: 160--------------------------------------------------
Re: Choi
By: Admin Date: March 5, 2017, 10:03 pm
---------------------------------------------------------
Plate Tectonics: A Paradigm Under Threat
David Pratt © 2000
HTML http://www.newgeology.us/presentation20.html
(First published in the Journal of Scientific Exploration, vol.
14, no. 3, pp. 307-352, 2000)
Abstract.
_-- This paper looks at the challenges confronting plate
tectonics -- the ruling paradigm in the earth sciences.
_The classical model of thin lithospheric plates moving over a
global asthenosphere is shown to be implausible.
_Evidence is presented that appears to contradict continental
drift, seafloor spreading and subduction, and the claim that the
oceanic crust is relatively young.
_The problems posed by vertical tectonic movements are reviewed,
including evidence for large areas of submerged continental
crust in today's oceans.
_It is concluded that the fundamental tenets of plate tectonics
might be wrong.
Introduction
_The idea of large-scale continental drift has been around for
some 200 years, but the first detailed theory was proposed by
Alfred Wegener in 1912.
_It met with widespread rejection, largely because the mechanism
he suggested was inadequate -- the continents supposedly plowed
slowly through the denser oceanic crust under the influence of
gravitational and rotational forces.
_Interest was revived in the early 1950s with the rise of the
new science of paleomagnetism, which seemed to provide strong
support for continental drift.
_In the early 1960s new data from ocean exploration led to the
idea of seafloor spreading.
_A few years later, these and other concepts were synthesized
into the model of plate tectonics, which was originally called
"the new global tectonics."
_According to the orthodox model of plate tectonics, the earth's
outer shell, or lithosphere, is divided into a number of large,
rigid plates that move over a soft layer of the mantle known as
the asthenosphere, and interact at their boundaries, where they
converge, diverge, or slide past one another.
_Such interactions are believed to be responsible for most of
the seismic and volcanic activity of the earth.
_Plates cause mountains to rise where they push together, and
continents to fracture and oceans to form where they rift apart.
_The continents, sitting passively on the backs of the plates,
drift with them, at the rate of a few centimeters a year.
_At the end of the Permian, some 250 million years ago, all the
present continents are said to have been gathered together in a
single supercontinent, Pangaea, consisting of two major
landmasses: Laurasia in the north, and Gondwanaland in the
south.
_Pangaea is widely believed to have started fragmenting in the
early Jurassic -- though this is sometimes said to have begun
earlier, in the Triassic, or even as late as the Cretaceous --
resulting in the configuration of oceans and continents observed
today.
_It has been said that "A hypothesis that is appealing for its
unity or simplicity acts as a filter, accepting reinforcement
with ease but tending to reject evidence that does not seem to
fit" (Grad, 1971, p. 636). Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff (1974b, p.
411) argued that this is "an admirable description of what has
happened in the field of earth dynamics, where one hypothesis --
the new global tectonics -- has been permitted to override and
overrule all other hypotheses."
_ Nitecki et al. (1978) reported that in 1961 only 27% of
western geologists accepted plate tectonics, but that during the
mid-1960s a "chain reaction" took place and by 1977 it was
embraced by as many as 87%.
_Some proponents of plate tectonics have admitted that a
bandwagon atmosphere developed, and that data that did not fit
into the model were not given sufficient consideration (e.g.
Wyllie, 1976), resulting in "a somewhat disturbing dogmatism"
(Dott and Batten, 1981, p. 151).
_McGeary and Plummer (1998, p. 97) acknowledge that "Geologists,
like other people, are susceptible to fads."
_Maxwell (1974) stated that many earth-science papers were
concerned with demonstrating that some particular feature or
process may be explained by plate tectonics, but that such
papers were of limited value in any unbiased assessment of the
scientific validity of the hypothesis.
_Van Andel (1984) conceded that plate tectonics had serious
flaws, and that the need for a growing number of ad hoc
modifications cast doubt on its claim to be the ultimate
unifying global theory.
_Lowman (1992a) argued that geology has largely become "a bland
mixture of descriptive research and interpretive papers in which
the interpretation is a facile cookbook application of
plate-tectonics concepts ... used as confidently as
trigonometric functions" (p. 3).
_Lyttleton and Bondi (1992) held that the difficulties facing
plate tectonics and the lack of study of alternative
explanations for seemingly supportive evidence reduced the
plausibility of the theory.
_Saull (1986) pointed out that no global tectonic model should
ever be considered definitive, since geological and geophysical
observations are nearly always open to alternative explanations.
_He also stated that even if plate tectonics were false, it
would be difficult to refute and replace, for the following
reasons: the processes supposed to be responsible for plate
dynamics are rooted in regions of the earth so poorly known that
it is hard to prove or disprove any particular model of them;
the hard core of belief in plate tectonics is protected from
direct assault by auxiliary hypotheses that are still being
generated; and the plate model is so widely believed to be
correct that it is difficult to get alternative interpretations
published in the scientific literature.
_When plate tectonics was first elaborated in the 1960s, less
than 0.0001% of the deep ocean had been explored and less than
20% of the land area had been mapped in meaningful detail.
_Even by the mid-1990s, only about 3 to 5% of the deep ocean
basins had been explored in any kind of detail, and not much
more than 25 to 30% of the land area could be said to be truly
known (Meyerhoff et al., 1996a).
_Scientific understanding of the earth's surface features is
clearly still in its infancy, to say nothing of the earth's
interior.
_Beloussov (1980, 1990) held that plate tectonics was a
premature generalization of still very inadequate data on the
structure of the ocean floor, and had proven to be far removed
from geological reality.
_He wrote: It is ... quite understandable that attempts to
employ this conception to explain concrete structural situations
in a local rather than a global scale lead to increasingly
complicated schemes in which it is suggested that local axes of
spreading develop here and there, that they shift their
position, die out, and reappear, that the rate of spreading
alters repeatedly and often ceases altogether, and that
lithospheric plates are broken up into an even greater number of
secondary and tertiary plates.
_All these schemes are characterised by a complete absence of
logic, and of patterns of any kind.
_The impression is given that certain rules of the game have
been invented, and that the aim is to fit reality into these
rules somehow or other. (1980, p. 303)
_Criticism of plate tectonics has increased in line with the
growing number of observational anomalies.
_This paper outlines some of the main problems facing the
theory.
Plates in Motion?
_According to the classical model of plate tectonics,
lithospheric plates creep over a relatively plastic layer of
partly molten rock known as the asthenosphere (or low-velocity
zone).
_According to a modern geological textbook (McGeary and Plummer,
1998), the lithosphere, which comprises the earth's crust and
uppermost mantle, averages about 70 km thick beneath oceans and
is at least 125 km thick beneath continents, while the
asthenosphere extends to a depth of perhaps 200 km.
_It points out that some geologists think that the lithosphere
beneath continents is at least 250 km thick.
_Seismic tomography, which produces three-dimensional images of
the earth's interior, appears to show that the oldest parts of
the continents have deep roots extending to depths of 400 to 600
km, and that the asthenosphere is essentially absent beneath
them.
_McGeary and Plummer (1998) say that these findings cast doubt
on the original, simple lithosphere-asthenosphere model of plate
behavior.
_They do not, however, consider any alternatives.
_Despite the compelling seismotomographic evidence for deep
continental roots (Dziewonski and Anderson, 1984; Dziewonski and
Woodhouse, 1987; Grand, 1987; Lerner-Lam, 1988; Forte,
Dziewonski, and O'Connell, 1995; Gossler and Kind, 1996), some
plate tectonicists have suggested that we just happen to live at
a time when the continents have drifted over colder mantle
(Anderson, Tanimoto, and Zhang, 1992), or that continental roots
are really no more than about 200 km thick, but that they induce
the downwelling of cold mantle material beneath them, giving the
illusion of much deeper roots (Polet and Anderson, 1995).
_However, evidence from seismic-velocity, heat-flow, and gravity
studies has been building up for several decades, showing that
ancient continental shields have very deep roots and that the
low-velocity asthenosphere is very thin or absent beneath them
(e.g. MacDonald, 1963; Jordan, 1975, 1978; Pollack and Chapman,
1977).
_Seismic tomography has merely reinforced the message that
continental cratons, especially those of Archean and Early
Proterozoic age, are "welded" to the underlying mantle, and that
the concept of thin (less than 250-km-thick) lithospheric plates
moving thousands of kilometers over a global asthenosphere is
unrealistic.
_Nevertheless, many textbooks continue to propagate the
simplistic lithosphere-asthenosphere model, and fail to give the
slightest indication that it faces any problems (e.g. McLeish,
1992; Skinner and Porter, 1995; Wicander and Monroe, 1999).
_Geophysical data show that, far from the asthenosphere being a
continuous layer, there are disconnected lenses (asthenolenses),
which are observed only in regions of tectonic activation and
high heat flow.
_Although surface-wave observations suggested that the
asthenosphere was universally present beneath the oceans,
detailed seismic studies show that here, too, there are only
asthenospheric lenses.
_Seismic research has revealed complicated zoning and
inhomogeneity in the upper mantle, and the alternation of layers
with higher and lower velocities and layers of different
quality.
_Individual low-velocity layers are bedded at different depths
in different regions and do not compose a single layer.
_This renders the very concept of the lithosphere ambiguous, at
least that of its base.
_Indeed, the definition of the lithosphere and asthenosphere has
become increasingly blurred with time (Pavlenkova, 1990, 1995,
1996).
_Thus, the lithosphere has a highly complex and irregular
structure.
_Far from being homogeneous, "plates" are actually "a
megabreccia, a 'pudding' of inhomogeneities whose nature, size
and properties vary widely" (Chekunov, Gordienko, and Guterman,
1990, p. 404).
_The crust and uppermost mantle are divided by faults into a
mosaic of separate, jostling blocks of different shapes and
sizes, generally a few hundred kilometers across, and of varying
internal structure and strength.
_Pavlenkova (1990, p. 78) concludes: "This means that the
movement of lithospheric plates over long distances, as single
rigid bodies, is hardly possible.
_Moreover, if we take into account the absence of the
asthenosphere as a single continuous zone, then this movement
seems utterly impossible."
_ She states that this is further confirmed by the strong
evidence that regional geological features, too, are connected
with deep (more than 400 km) inhomogeneities and that these
connections remain stable during long periods of geologic time;
considerable movement between the lithosphere and asthenosphere
would detach near-surface structures from their deep mantle
roots.
_Plate tectonicists who accept the evidence for deep continental
roots have proposed that plates may extend to and glide along
the 400-km or even 670-km seismic discontinuity (Seyfert, 1998;
Jordan, 1975, 1978, 1979).
_Jordan, for instance, suggested that the oceanic lithosphere
moves on the classical low-velocity zone, while the continental
lithosphere moves along the 400-km discontinuity.
_However, there is no certainty that a superplastic zone exists
at this discontinuity, and no evidence has been found of a shear
zone connecting the two decoupling layers along the trailing
edge of continents (Lowman, 1985).
_Moreover, even under the oceans there appears to be no
continuous asthenosphere.
_Finally, the movement of such thick "plates" poses an even
greater problem than that of thin lithospheric plates.
_The driving force of plate movements was initially claimed to
be mantle-deep convection currents welling up beneath midocean
ridges, with downwelling occurring beneath ocean trenches.
_Since the existence of layering in the mantle was considered to
render whole-mantle convection unlikely, two-layer convection
models were also proposed.
_Jeffreys (1974) argued that convection cannot take place
because it is a self-damping process, as described by the
Lomnitz law.
_Plate tectonicists expected seismic tomography to provide clear
evidence of a well-organized convection-cell pattern, but it has
actually provided strong evidence against the existence of
large, plate-propelling convection cells in the upper mantle
(Anderson, Tanimoto, and Zhang, 1992).
_Many geologists now think that mantle convection is a result of
plate motion rather than its cause, and that it is shallow
rather than mantle deep (McGeary and Plummer, 1998).
_The favored plate-driving mechanisms at present are
"ridge-push" and "slab-pull," though their adequacy is very much
in doubt.
_Slab-pull is believed to be the dominant mechanism, and refers
to the gravitational subsidence of subducted slabs.
_However, it will not work for plates that are largely
continental, or that have leading edges that are continental,
because continental crust cannot be bodily subducted due to its
low density, and it seems utterly unrealistic to imagine that
ridge-push from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge alone could move the
120°-wide Eurasian plate (Lowman, 1986).
_Moreover, evidence for the long-term weakness of large rock
masses casts doubt on the idea that edge forces can be
transmitted from one margin of a "plate" to its interior or
opposite margin (Keith, 1993).
_Thirteen major plates are currently recognized, ranging in size
from about 400 by 2500 km to 10,000 by 10,000 km, together with
a proliferating number of microplates (over 100 so far).
_Van Andel (1998) writes: Where plate boundaries adjoin
continents, matters often become very complex and have demanded
an ever denser thicket of ad hoc modifications and amendments to
the theory and practice of plate tectonics in the form of
microplates, obscure plate boundaries, and exotic terranes.
_A good example is the Mediterranean, where the collisions
between Africa and a swarm of microcontinents have produced a
tectonic nightmare that is far from resolved.
_More disturbingly, some of the present plate boundaries,
especially in the eastern Mediterranean, appear to be so diffuse
and so anomalous that they cannot be compared to the three types
of plate boundaries of the basic theory.
_Plate boundaries are identified and defined mainly on the basis
of earthquake and volcanic activity.
_The close correspondence between plate edges and belts of
earthquakes and volcanoes is therefore to be expected and can
hardly be regarded as one of the "successes" of plate tectonics
(McGeary and Plummer, 1998).
_Moreover, the simple pattern of earthquakes around the Pacific
Basin on which plate-tectonics models have hitherto been based
has been seriously undermined by more recent studies showing a
surprisingly large number of earthquakes in deep-sea regions
previously thought to be aseismic (Storetvedt, 1997).
_Another major problem is that several "plate boundaries" are
purely theoretical and appear to be nonexistent, including the
northwest Pacific boundary of the Pacific, North American, and
Eurasian plates, the southern boundary of the Philippine plate,
part of the southern boundary of the Pacific plate, and most of
the northern and southern boundaries of the South American plate
(Stanley, 1989).
Continental Drift
_Geological field mapping provides evidence for horizontal
crustal movements of up to several hundred kilometers (Jeffreys,
1976).
_Plate tectonics, however, claims that continents have moved up
to 7000 km or more since the alleged breakup of Pangaea.
_Measurements using space-geodetic techniques -- very long
baseline interferometry (VLBI), satellite laser-ranging (SLR),
and the global positioning system (GPS) -- have been hailed by
some workers as having proved plate tectonics.
_Such measurements provide a guide to crustal strains, but do
not provide evidence for plate motions of the kind predicted by
plate tectonics unless the relative motions predicted among all
plates are observed.
_However, many of the results have shown no definite pattern,
and have been confusing and contradictory, giving rise to a
variety of ad-hoc hypotheses (Fallon and Dillinger, 1992; Gordon
and Stein, 1992; Smith et al., 1994).
_Japan and North America appear, as predicted, to be approaching
each other, but distances from the Central South American Andes
to Japan or Hawaii are more or less constant, whereas plate
tectonics predicts significant separation (Storetvedt, 1997).
_Trans-Atlantic drift has not been demonstrated, because
baselines within North America and western Europe have failed to
establish that the plates are moving as rigid units; they
suggest in fact significant intraplate deformation (Lowman,
1992b; James, 1994).
_Space-geodetic measurements to date have therefore not
confirmed plate tectonics.
_Moreover, they are open to alternative explanations (e.g.
Meyerhoff et al., 1996a; Storetvedt, 1997; Carey, 1994).
_It is clearly a hazardous exercise to extrapolate present
crustal movements tens or hundreds of millions of years into the
past or future.
_Indeed, geodetic surveys across "rift" zones (e.g. in Iceland
and East Africa) have failed to detect any consistent and
systematic widening as postulated by plate tectonics (Keith,
1993).
Fits and Misfits
_A "compelling" piece of evidence that all the continents were
once united in one large landmass is said to be the fact that
they can be fitted together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
_Many reconstructions have been attempted (e.g. Bullard,
Everett, and Smith, 1965; Nafe and Drake, 1969; Dietz and
Holden, 1970; Smith and Hallam, 1970; Tarling, 1971; Barron,
Harrison, and Hay, 1978; Smith, Hurley, and Briden, 1981;
Scotese, Gagahan, and Larson, 1988), but none are entirely
acceptable.
_In the Bullard, Everett, and Smith (1965) computer-generated
fit, for example, there are a number of glaring omissions.
_The whole of Central America and much of southern Mexico are
left out, despite the fact that extensive areas of Paleozoic and
Precambrian continental rocks occur there.
_This region of some 2,100,000 km² overlaps South America in a
region consisting of a craton at least 2 billion years old.
_The entire West Indian archipelago has also been omitted.
_In fact, much of the Caribbean is underlain by ancient
continental crust, and the total area involved, 300,000 km²,
overlaps Africa (Meyerhoff and Hatten, 1974).
_The Cape Verde Islands-Senegal basin, too, is underlain by
ancient continental crust, creating an additional overlap of
800,000 km².
_Several major submarine structures that appear to be of
continental origin are ignored in the Bullard, Everett, and
Smith fit, including the Faeroe-Iceland-Greenland Ridge, Jan
Mayen Ridge, Walvis Ridge, Rio Grande Rise, and the Falkland
Plateau.
_However, the Rockall Plateau was included for the sole reason
that it could be "slotted in."
_The Bullard fit postulates an east-west shear zone through the
present Mediterranean and requires a rotation of Spain, but
field geology does not support either of these suppositions
(Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1974a).
_Even the celebrated fit of South America and Africa is
problematic as it is impossible to match all parts of the
coastlines simultaneously; for instance, there is a gap between
Guyana and Guinea (Eyles and Eyles, 1993).
_Like the Bullard, Everett, and Smith (1965) fit, the Smith and
Hallam (1970) reconstruction of the Gondwanaland continents is
based on the 500-fathom depth contour.
_The South Orkneys and South Georgia are omitted, as is
Kerguelen Island in the Indian Ocean, and there is a large gap
west of Australia.
_Fitting India against Australia, as in other fits, leaves a
corresponding gap in the western Indian Ocean (Hallam, 1976).
_Dietz and Holden (1970) based their fit on the 1000-fathom
(2-km) contour, but they still had to omit the Florida-Bahamas
platform, ignoring the evidence that it predates the alleged
commencement of drift.
_In many regions the boundary between continental and oceanic
crust appears to occur beneath oceanic depths of 2-4 km or more
(Hallam, 1979), and in some places the ocean-continent
transition zone is several hundred kilometers wide (Van der
Linden, 1977).
_This means that any reconstructions based on arbitrarily
selected depth contours are flawed.
_Given the liberties that drifters have had to take to obtain
the desired continental matches, their computer-generated fits
may well be a case of "garbage in, garbage out" (Le Grand,
1988).
_The similarities of rock types and geological structures on
coasts that were supposedly once juxtaposed are hailed by
drifters as further evidence that the continents were once
joined together.
_However, they rarely mention the many geological
dissimilarities.
_For instance, western Africa and northern Brazil were
supposedly once in contact, yet the structural trends of the
former run N-S, while those of the latter run E-W (Storetvedt,
1997).
_Some predrift reconstructions show peninsular India against
western Antarctica, yet Permian Indian basins do not correspond
geographically or in sequence to the western Australian basins
(Dickins and Choi, 1997).
_Gregory (1929) held that the geological resemblances of
opposing Atlantic coastlines are due to the areas having
belonged to the same tectonic belt, but that the differences are
sufficient to show that the areas were situated in distant parts
of the belt.
_Bucher (1933) showed that the paleontological and geological
similarities between the eastern Alps and central Himalayas,
4000 miles apart, are just as remarkable as those between the
Argentine and South Africa, separated by the same distance.
_The approximate parallelism of the coastlines of the Atlantic
Ocean may be due to the boundaries between the continents and
oceans having been formed by deep faults, which tend to be
grouped into parallel systems (Beloussov, 1980).
_Moreover, the curvature of continental contours is often so
similar that many of them can be joined together if they are
given the necessary rotation.
_Lyustikh (1967) gave examples of 15 shorelines that can be
fitted together quite well even though they can never have been
in juxtaposition.
_Voisey (1958) showed that eastern Australia fits well with
eastern North America if Cape York is placed next to Florida.
_He pointed out that the geological and paleontological
similarities are remarkable, probably due to the similar
tectonic backgrounds of the two regions.
Paleomagnetic Pitfalls
_One of the main props of continental drift is paleomagnetism --
the study of the magnetism of ancient rocks and sediments.
_The inclination and declination of fossil magnetism can be used
to infer the location of a virtual magnetic pole relative to the
location of the sample in question.
_When virtual poles are determined from progressively older
rocks from the same continent, the poles appear to wander with
time.
_Joining the former, averaged pole positions generates an
apparent polar wander path.
_Different continents yield different polar wander paths, and
from this it has been concluded that the apparent wandering of
the magnetic poles is caused by the actual wandering of the
continents over the earth's surface.
_The possibility that there has been some degree of true polar
wander -- i.e. a shift of the whole earth relative to the
rotation axis (the axial tilt remaining the same) -- has not,
however, been ruled out.
_That paleomagnetism can be unreliable is well established
(Barron, Harrison, and Hay, 1978; Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff,
1972).
_For instance, paleomagnetic data imply that during the
mid-Cretaceous Azerbaijan and Japan were in the same place
(Meyerhoff, 1970a)! The literature is in fact bursting with
inconsistencies (Storetvedt, 1997).
_Paleomagnetic studies of rocks of different ages suggest a
different polar wander path not only for each continent, but
also for different parts of each continent.
_When individual paleomagnetic pole positions, rather than
averaged curves, are plotted on world maps, the scatter is huge,
often wider than the Atlantic.
_Furthermore, paleomagnetism can determine only paleolatitude,
not paleolongitude.
_Consequently, it cannot be used to prove continental drift.
_Paleomagnetism is plagued with uncertainties.
_Merrill, McElhinny, and McFadden (1996, p. 69) state: "there
are numerous pitfalls that await the unwary: first, in sorting
out the primary magnetization from secondary magnetizations
(acquired subsequent to formation), and second, in extrapolating
the properties of the primary magnetization to those of the
earth's magnetic field."
_The interpretation of paleomagnetic data is founded on two
basic assumptions:
1. when rocks are formed, they are magnetized in the direction
of the geomagnetic field existing at the time and place of their
formation, and the acquired magnetization is retained in the
rocks at least partially over geologic time;
2. the geomagnetic field averaged for any time period of the
order of 105 years (except magnetic-reversal epochs) is a dipole
field oriented along the earth's rotation axis.
_Both these assumptions are questionable.
_The gradual northward shift of paleopole "scatter ellipses"
through time and the gradual reduction in the diameters of the
ellipses suggest that remanent magnetism becomes less stable
with time.
_Rock magnetism is subject to modification by later magnetism,
weathering, metamorphism, tectonic deformation, and chemical
changes.
_Moreover, the geomagnetic field at the present time deviates
substantially from that of a geocentric axial dipole.
_The magnetic axis is tilted by about 11° to the rotation axis,
and on some planets much greater offsets are found: 46.8° in the
case of Neptune, and 58.6° in the case of Uranus (Merrill,
McElhinny, and McFadden, 1996).
_Nevertheless, because earth's magnetic field undergoes
significant long-term secular variation (e.g.
_a westward drift), it is thought that the time-averaged field
will closely approximate a geocentric axial dipole.
_However, there is strong evidence that the geomagnetic field
had long-term nondipole components in the past, though they have
largely been neglected (Van der Voo, 1998; Kent and Smethurst,
1998).
_To test the axial nature of the geomagnetic field in the past,
paleoclimatic data have to be used.
_However, several major paleoclimatic indicators, along with
paleontological data, provide powerful evidence against
continental-drift models, and therefore against the current
interpretation of paleomagnetic data (see below).
_It is possible that the magnetic poles have wandered
considerably with respect to the geographic poles in former
times.
_Also, if in past geological periods there were stable magnetic
anomalies of the same intensity as the present-day East Asian
anomaly (or slightly more intensive), this would render the
geocentric axial dipole hypothesis invalid (Beloussov, 1990).
_Regional or semi-global magnetic fields might be generated by
vortex-like cells of thermal-magmatic energy, rising and falling
in the earth's mantle (Pratsch, 1990).
_Another important factor may be magnetostriction -- the
alteration of the direction of magnetization by directed stress
(Jeffreys, 1976; Munk and MacDonald, 1975).
_Some workers have shown that certain discordant paleomagnetic
results that could be explained by large horizontal movements
can be explained equally well by vertical block rotations and
tilts and by inclination shallowing resulting from sediment
compaction (Butler et al., 1989; Dickinson and Butler, 1998;
Irving and Archibald, 1990; Hodych and Bijaksana, 1993).
_Storetvedt (1992, 1997) has developed a model known as global
wrench tectonics in which paleomagnetic data are explained by
in-situ horizontal rotations of continental blocks, together
with true polar wander.
_The possibility that a combination of these factors could be at
work simultaneously significantly undermines the use of
paleomagnetism to support continental drift.
Drift versus Geology
_The opening of the Atlantic Ocean allegedly began in the
Cretaceous by the rifting apart of the Eurasian and American
plates.
_However, on the other side of the globe, northeastern Eurasia
is joined to North America by the Bering-Chukotsk shelf, which
is underlain by Precambrian continental crust that is continuous
and unbroken from Alaska to Siberia.
_Geologically these regions constitute a single unit, and it is
unrealistic to suppose that they were formerly divided by an
ocean several thousand kilometers wide, which closed to
compensate for the opening of the Atlantic.
_If a suture is absent there, one ought to be found in Eurasia
or North America, but no such suture appears to exist
(Beloussov, 1990; Shapiro, 1990).
_If Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea had formed by Greenland and
North America drifting apart, this would have produced hundreds
of kilometers of lateral offset across the Nares Strait between
Greenland and Ellesmere Island, but geological field studies
reveal no such offset (Grant, 1980, 1992).
_Greenland is separated from Europe west of Spitsbergen by only
50-75 km at the 1000-fathom depth contour, and it is joined to
Europe by the continental Faeroe-Iceland-Greenland Ridge
(Meyerhoff, 1974).
_All these facts rule out the possibility of east-west drift in
the northern hemisphere.
_Geology indicates that there has been a direct tectonic
connection between Europe and Africa across the zones of
Gibraltar and Rif on the one hand, and Calabria and Sicily on
the other, at least since the end of the Paleozoic,
contradicting plate-tectonic claims of significant displacement
between Europe and Africa during this period (Beloussov, 1990).
_Plate tectonicists hold widely varying opinions on the Middle
East region.
_Some advocate the former presence of two or more plates, some
postulate several microplates, others support island-arc
interpretations, and a majority favor the existence of at least
one suture zone that marks the location of a continent-continent
collision.
_Kashfi (1992, p. 119) comments: "Nearly all of these hypotheses
are mutually exclusive.
_Most would cease to exist if the field data were honored.
_These data show that there is nothing in the geologic record to
support a past separation of Arabia-Africa from the remainder of
the Middle East."
_India supposedly detached itself from Antarctica sometime
during the Mesozoic, and then drifted northeastward up to 9000
km, over a period of up to 200 million years, until it finally
collided with Asia in the mid-Tertiary, pushing up the Himalayas
and the Tibetan Plateau.
_That Asia happened to have an indentation of approximately the
correct shape and size and in exactly the right place for India
to "dock" into would amount to a remarkable coincidence
(Mantura, 1972).
_There is, however, overwhelming geological and paleontological
evidence that India has been an integral part of Asia since
Proterozoic or earlier time (Chatterjee and Hotton, 1986; Ahmad,
1990; Saxena and Gupta, 1990; Meyerhoff et al., 1991).
_There is also abundant evidence that the Tethys Sea in the
region of the present Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt was never a
deep, wide ocean but rather a narrow, predominantly shallow,
intracontinental seaway (Bhat, 1987; Dickins, 1987, 1994c;
McKenzie, 1987; Stöcklin, 1989).
_If the long journey of India had actually occurred, it would
have been an isolated island-continent for millions of years --
sufficient time to have evolved a highly distinct endemic fauna.
_However, the Mesozoic and Tertiary faunas show no such
endemism, but indicate instead that India lay very close to Asia
throughout this period, and not to Australia and Antarctica
(Chatterjee and Hotton, 1986).
_The stratigraphic, structural, and paleontological continuity
of India with Asia and Arabia means that the supposed "flight of
India" is no more than a flight of fancy.
_A striking feature of the oceans and continents today is that
they are arranged antipodally: the Arctic Ocean is precisely
antipodal to Antarctica; North America is exactly antipodal to
the Indian Ocean; Europe and Africa are antipodal to the central
area of the Pacific Ocean; Australia is antipodal to the small
basin of the North Atlantic; and the South Atlantic corresponds
-- though less exactly -- to the eastern half of Asia (Gregory,
1899, 1901; Bucher, 1933; Steers, 1950).
_Only 7% of the earth's surface does not obey the antipodal
rule.
_If the continents had slowly drifted thousands of kilometers to
their present positions, the antipodal arrangement of land and
water would have to be regarded as purely coincidental.
_Harrison et al. (1983) calculated that there is 1 chance in 7
that this arrangement is the result of a random process.
Paleoclimatology
_The paleoclimatic record is preserved from Proterozoic time to
the present in the geographic distribution of evaporites,
carbonate rocks, coals, and tillites.
_The locations of these paleoclimatic indicators are best
explained by stable rather than shifting continents, and by
periodic changes in climate, from globally warm or hot to
globally cool (Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1974a; Meyerhoff et al.,
1996b).
_For instance, 95% of all evaporites -- a dry-climate indicator
-- from the Proterozoic to the present lie in regions that now
receive less than 100 cm of rainfall per year, i.e. in today's
dry-wind belts.
_The evaporite and coal zones show a pronounced northward offset
similar to today's northward offset of the thermal equator.
_Shifting the continents succeeds at best in explaining local or
regional paleoclimatic features for a particular period, and
invariably fails to explain the global climate for the same
period.
_In the Carboniferous and Permian, glaciers covered parts of
Antarctica, South Africa, South America, India, and Australia.
_Drifters claim that this glaciation can be explained in terms
of Gondwanaland, which was then situated near the south pole.
_However, the Gondwanaland hypothesis defeats itself in this
respect because large areas that were glaciated during this
period would be removed too far inland for moist ocean-air
currents to reach them.
_Glaciers would have formed only at its margins, while the
interior would have been a vast, frigid desert (Meyerhoff,
1970a; Meyerhoff and Teichert, 1971).
_Shallow epicontinental seas within Pangaea could not have
provided the required moisture because they would have been
frozen during the winter months.
_This glaciation is easier to explain in terms of the
continents' present positions: nearly all the continental ice
centers were adjacent to or near present coastlines, or in high
plateaus and/or mountainlands not far from present coasts.
_Drifters say that the continents have shifted little since the
start of the Cenozoic (some 65 million years ago), yet this
period has seen significant alterations in climatic conditions.
_Even since Early Pliocene time the width of the temperate zone
has changed by more than 15° (1650 km) in both the northern and
southern hemispheres.
_The uplift of the Rocky Mountains and Tibetan Plateau appears
to have been a key factor in the Late Cenozoic climatic
deterioration (Ruddiman and Kutzbach, 1989; Manabe and Broccoli,
1990).
_To decide whether past climates are compatible with the present
latitudes of the regions concerned, it is clearly essential to
take account of vertical crustal movements, which can bring
about significant changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation
patterns by altering the topography of the continents and ocean
floor, and the distribution of land and sea (Dickins, 1994a;
Meyerhoff, 1970b; Brooks, 1949).
Biopaleogeography
_Meyerhoff et al. (1996b) showed in a detailed study that most
major biogeographical boundaries, based on floral and faunal
distributions, do not coincide with the partly
computer-generated plate boundaries postulated by plate
tectonics.
_Nor do the proposed movements of continents correspond with the
known, or necessary, migration routes and directions of
biogeographical boundaries.
_In most cases, the discrepancies are very large, and not even
an approximate match can be claimed.
_The authors comment: "What is puzzling is that such major
inconsistencies between plate tectonic postulates and field
data, involving as they do boundaries that extend for thousands
of kilometers, are permitted to stand unnoticed, unacknowledged,
and unstudied" (p. 3).
_The known distributions of fossil organisms are more consistent
with an earth model like that of today than with
continental-drift models, and more migration problems are raised
by joining the continents in the past than by keeping them
separated (Smiley, 1974, 1976, 1992; Teichert, 1974; Khudoley,
1974; Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1974a; Teichert and Meyerhoff,
1972).
_It is unscientific to select a few faunal identities and ignore
the vastly greater number of faunal dissimilarities from
different continents which were supposedly once joined.
_The widespread distribution of the Glossopteris flora in the
southern continents is frequently claimed to support the former
existence of Gondwanaland, but it is rarely pointed out that
this flora has also been found in northeast Asia (Smiley, 1976).
_Some of the paleontological evidence appears to require the
alternate emergence and submergence of land dispersal routes
only after the supposed breakup of Pangaea.
_For example, mammal distribution indicates that there were no
direct physical connections between Europe and North America
during Late Cretaceous and Paleocene times, but suggests a
temporary connection with Europe during the Eocene (Meyerhoff
and Meyerhoff, 1974a).
_Continental drift, on the other hand, would have resulted in an
initial disconnection with no subsequent reconnection.
_A few drifters have recognized the need for intermittent land
bridges after the supposed separation of the continents (e.g.
Tarling, 1982; Briggs, 1987).
_Various oceanic ridges, rises, and plateaus could have served
as land bridges, as many are known to have been partly above
water at various times in the past.
_It is also possible that these land bridges formed part of
larger former landmasses in the present oceans (see below).
Seafloor Spreading and Subduction
_According to the seafloor-spreading hypothesis, new oceanic
lithosphere is generated at midocean ridges ("divergent plate
boundaries") by the upwelling of molten material from the
earth's mantle, and as the magma cools it spreads away from the
flanks of the ridges.
_The horizontally moving plates are said to plunge back into the
mantle at ocean trenches or "subduction zones" ("convergent
plate boundaries").
_The melting of the descending slab is believed to give rise to
the magmatic-volcanic arcs that lie adjacent to certain
trenches.
Seafloor Spreading
_The ocean floor is far from having the uniform characteristics
that conveyor-type spreading would imply (Keith, 1993).
_Although averaged surface-wave data seemed to confirm that the
oceanic lithosphere was symmetrical in relation to the ridge
axis and increased in thickness with distance from the axial
zone, more detailed seismic research has contradicted this
simple model.
_It has shown that the mantle is asymmetrical in relation to the
midocean ridges and has a complicated mosaic structure
independent of the strike of the ridge.
_Several low-velocity zones (asthenolenses) occur in the oceanic
mantle, but it is difficult to establish any regularity between
the depth of the zones and their distance from the midocean
ridge (Pavlenkova, 1990).
_Boreholes drilled in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans
have shown the extensive distribution of shallow-water sediments
ranging from Triassic to Quaternary.
_The spatial distribution of shallow-water sediments and their
vertical arrangement in some of the sections refute the
spreading mechanism for the formation of oceanic lithosphere
(Ruditch, 1990).
_The evidence implies that since the Jurassic, the present
oceans have undergone large-amplitude subsidences, and that this
occurred mosaically rather than showing a systematic
relationship with distance from the ocean ridges.
_Younger, shallow-water sediments are often located farther from
the axial zones of the ridges than older ones -- the opposite of
what is required by the plate-tectonics model, which postulates
that as newly-formed oceanic lithosphere moves away from the
spreading axis and cools, it gradually subsides to greater
depths.
_Furthermore, some areas of the oceans appear to have undergone
continuous subsidence, whereas others underwent alternating
subsidence and elevation.
_The height of the ridge along the Romanche fracture zone in the
equatorial Atlantic is 1 to 4 km above that expected by
seafloor-spreading models.
_Large segments of it were close to or above sea level only 5
million years ago, and subsequent subsidence has been one order
of magnitude faster than that predicted by plate tectonics
(Bonatti and Chermak, 1981).
_According to the seafloor-spreading model, heat flow should be
highest along ocean ridges and fall off steadily with increasing
distance from the ridge crests.
_Actual measurements, however, contradict this simple picture:
ridge crests show a very large scatter in heat-flow magnitudes,
and there is generally little difference in thermal flux between
the ridge and the rest of the ocean (Storetvedt, 1997; Keith,
1993).
_All parts of the Indian Ocean display a cold and rather
featureless heat-flow picture except the Central Indian Basin.
_The broad region of intense tectonic deformation in this basin
indicates that the basement has a block structure, and presents
a major puzzle for plate tectonics, especially since it is
located in a "midplate" setting.
_Smoot and Meyerhoff (1995) have shown that nearly all published
charts of the world's ocean floors have been drawn deliberately
to reflect the predictions of the plate-tectonics hypothesis.
_For example, the Atlantic Ocean floor is unvaryingly shown to
be dominated by a sinuous, north-south midocean ridge, flanked
on either side by abyssal plains, cleft at its crest by a rift
valley, and offset at more or less regular 40- to 60-km
intervals by east-west-striking fracture zones.
_New, detailed bathymetric surveys indicate that this
oversimplified portrayal of the Atlantic Basin is largely wrong,
yet the most accurate charts now available are widely ignored
because they do not conform to plate-tectonic preconceptions.
_According to plate tectonics, the offset segments of
"spreading" oceanic ridges should be connected by "transform
fault" plate boundaries.
_Since the late 1960s, it has been claimed that first-motion
studies in ocean fracture zones provide overwhelming support for
the concept of transform faults.
_The results of these seismic surveys, however, were never
clear-cut, and contradictory evidence and alternative
explanations have been ignored (Storetvedt, 1997; Meyerhoff and
Meyerhoff, 1974a).
_Instead of being continuous and approximately parallel across
the full width of each ridge, ridge-transverse fracture zones
tend to be discontinuous, with many unpredicted bends,
bifurcations, and changes in strike.
_In places, the fractures are diagonal rather than perpendicular
to the ridge, and several parts of the ridge have no important
fracture zones or even traces of them.
_For instance, they are absent from a 700-km-long portion of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge between the Atlantis and Kane fracture zones.
_There is a growing recognition that the fracture patterns in
the Atlantic "show anomalies that are neither predicted by nor
... yet built into plate tectonic understanding" (Shirley,
1998a, b).
_Side-scanning radar images show that the midocean ridges are
cut by thousands of long, linear, ridge-parallel fissures,
fractures, and faults.
_This strongly suggests that the ridges are underlain at shallow
depth by interconnected magma channels, in which semi-fluid lava
moves horizontally and parallel with the ridges rather than at
right-angles to them.
_The fault pattern observed is therefore totally different from
that predicted by plate tectonics, and it cannot be explained by
upwelling mantle diapirs as some plate tectonicists have
proposed (Meyerhoff et al., 1992a).
_A zone of thrust faults, 300-400 km wide, has been discovered
flanking the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over a length of 1000 km
(Antipov et al., 1990).
_Since it was produced under conditions of compression, it
contradicts the plate-tectonic hypothesis that midocean ridges
are dominated by tension.
_In Iceland, the largest landmass astride the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, the predominant stresses in the axial zone are likewise
compressive rather than extensional (Keith, 1993).
_Earthquake data compiled by Zoback et al. (1989) provide
further evidence that ocean ridges are characterized by
widespread compression, whereas recorded tensional earthquake
activity associated with these ridges is rarer.
_The rough topography and strong tectonic deformation of much of
the ocean ridges, especially in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans,
suggest that, instead of being "spreading centers," they are a
type of foldbelt (Storetvedt, 1997).
_The continents and oceans are covered with a network of major
structures or lineaments, many dating from the Precambrian,
along which tectonic and magmatic activity and associated
mineralization take place (Gay, 1973; Katterfeld and Charushin,
1973; O'Driscoll, 1980; Wezel, 1992; Anfiloff, 1992; Dickins and
Choi, 1997).
_The oceanic lineaments are not readily compatible with seafloor
spreading and subduction, and plate tectonics shows little
interest in them.
_GEOSAT data and SASS multibeam sonar data show that there are
NNW-SSE and WSW-ENE megatrends in the Pacific Ocean, composed
primarily of fracture zones and linear seamount chains, and
these orthogonal lineaments naturally intersect (Smoot, 1997b,
1998a, b, 1999).
_This is a physical impossibility in plate tectonics, as
seamount chains supposedly indicate the direction of plate
movement, and plates would therefore have to move in two
directions at once! No satisfactory plate-tectonic explanation
of any of these megatrends has been proposed outside the realm
of ad-hoc "microplates," and they are largely ignored.
_The orthogonal lineaments in the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean,
and Tasmanian Sea are also ignored (Choi, 1997, 1999a, c).
Age of the Seafloor
_The oldest known rocks from the continents are just under 4
billion years old, whereas -- according to plate tectonics --
none of the ocean crust is older than 200 million years
(Jurassic).
_This is cited as conclusive evidence that oceanic lithosphere
is constantly being created at midocean ridges and consumed in
subduction zones.
_There is in fact abundant evidence against the alleged youth of
the ocean floor, though geological textbooks tend to pass over
it in silence.
_The oceanic crust is commonly divided into three main layers:
layer 1 consists of ocean floor sediments and averages 0.5 km in
thickness; layer 2 consists largely of basalt and is 1.0 to 2.5
km thick; and layer 3 is assumed to consist of gabbro and is
about 5 km thick.
_Scientists involved in the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)
have given the impression that the basalt (layer 2) found at the
base of many deep-sea drillholes is basement, and that there are
no further, older sediments below it.
_However, the DSDP scientists were apparently motivated by a
strong desire to confirm seafloor spreading (Storetvedt, 1997).
_Of the first 429 sites drilled (1968-77), only 165 (38%)
reached basalt, and some penetrated more than one basalt.
_All but 12 of the 165 basalt penetrations were called basement,
including 19 sites where the upper contact of the basalt with
the sediments was baked (Meyerhoff et al., 1992a).
_Baked contacts suggest that the basalt is an intrusive sill,
and in some cases this has been confirmed, as the basalts turned
out to have radiometric dates younger than the overlying
sediments (e.g. Macdougall, 1971).
_101 sediment-basalt contacts were never recovered in cores, and
therefore never actually seen, yet they were still assumed to be
depositional contacts.
_In 33 cases depositional contacts were observed, but the basalt
sometimes contained sedimentary clasts, suggesting that there
might be older sediments below.
_Indeed, boreholes that have penetrated layer 2 to some depth
have revealed an alternation of basalts and sedimentary rocks
(Hall and Robinson, 1979; Anderson et al., 1982).
_Kamen-Kaye (1970) warned that before drawing conclusions on the
youth of the ocean floor, rocks must be penetrated to depths of
up to 5 km to see whether there are Triassic, Paleozoic, or
Precambrian sediments below the so-called basement.
_Plate tectonics predicts that the age of the oceanic crust
should increase systematically with distance from the midocean
ridge crests.
_Claims by DSDP scientists to have confirmed this are not
supported by a detailed review of the drilling results.
_The dates exhibit a very large scatter, which becomes even
larger if dredge hauls are included.
_On some marine magnetic anomalies the age scatter is tens of
millions of years (Meyerhoff et al., 1992a).
_On one seamount just west of the crest of the East Pacific
Rise, the radiometric dates range from 2.4 to 96 million years.
_Although a general trend is discernible from younger sediments
at ridge crests to older sediments away from them, this is in
fact to be expected, since the crest is the highest and most
active part of the ridge; older sediments are likely to be
buried beneath younger volcanic rocks.
_The basalt layer in the ocean crust suggests that magma
flooding was once ocean-wide, but volcanism was subsequently
restricted to an increasingly narrow zone centered on the ridge
crests.
_Such magma floods were accompanied by progressive crustal
subsidence in large sectors of the present oceans, beginning in
the Jurassic (Keith, 1993; Beloussov, 1980).
_The numerous finds in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans
of rocks far older than 200 million years, many of them
continental in nature, provide strong evidence against the
alleged youth of the underlying crust.
_In the Atlantic, rock and sediment age should range from
Cretaceous (120 million years) adjacent to the continents to
very recent at the ridge crest.
_During legs 37 and 43 of the DSDP, Paleozoic and Proterozoic
igneous rocks were recovered in cores on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
and the Bermuda Rise, yet not one of these occurrences of
ancient rocks was mentioned in the Cruise Site Reports or Cruise
Synthesis Reports (Meyerhoff et al., 1996a).
_Aumento and Loncarevic (1969) reported that 75% of 84 rock
samples dredged from the Bald Mountain region just west of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge crest at 45°N consisted of continental-type
rocks, and commented that this was a "remarkable phenomenon" --
so remarkable, in fact, that they decided to classify these
rocks as "glacial erratics" and to give them no further
consideration.
_Another way of dealing with "anomalous" rock finds is to
dismiss them as ship ballast.
_However, the Bald Mountain locality has an estimated volume of
80 km³, so it is hardly likely to have been rafted out to sea on
an iceberg or dumped by a ship! It consists of granitic and
silicic metamorphic rocks ranging in age from 1690 to 1550
million years, and is intruded by 785-million-year mafic rocks
(Wanless et al., 1968).
_Ozima et al. (1976) found basalts of Middle Jurassic age (169
million years) at the junction of the rift valley of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Atlantis fracture zone (30°N), an
area where basalt should theoretically be extremely young, and
stated that they were unlikely to be ice-rafted rocks.
_Van Hinte and Ruffman (1995) concluded that Paleozoic
limestones dredged from Orphan Knoll in the northwest Atlantic
were in situ and not ice rafted.
_In another attempt to explain away anomalously old rocks and
anomalously shallow or emergent crust in certain parts of the
ridges, some plate tectonicists have argued that "nonspreading
blocks" can be left behind during rifting, and that the
spreading axis and related transform faults can jump from place
to place (e.g. Bonatti and Honnorez, 1971; Bonatti and Crane,
1982; Bonatti, 1990).
_This hypothesis was invoked by Pilot et al. (1998) to explain
the presence of zircons with ages of 330 and 1600 million years
in gabbros beneath the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near the Kane fracture
zone.
_Yet another way of dealing with anomalous rock ages is to
reject them as unreliable.
_For instance, Reynolds and Clay (1977), reporting on a
Proterozoic date (635 million years) near the crest of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, wrote that the age must be wrong because the
theoretical age of the site was only about 10 million years.
_Paleozoic trilobites and graptolites have been dredged from the
King's Trough area, on the opposite side of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge to Bald Mountain, and at several localities near the
Azores (Furon, 1949; Smoot and Meyerhoff, 1995).
_Detailed surveys of the equatorial segment of the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge have provided a wide variety of data contradicting the
seafloor-spreading model, including numerous shallow-water and
continental rocks, with ages up to 3.74 billion years (Udintsev,
1996; Udintsev et al., 1993; Timofeyev et al., 1992).
_Melson, Hart, and Thompson (1972), studying St. Peter and
Paul's Rocks at the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge just north
of the equator, found an 835-million-year rock associated with
other rocks giving 350-, 450-, and 2000-million-year ages,
whereas according to the seafloor-spreading model the rock
should have been 35 million years.
_Numerous igneous and metamorphic rocks giving late Precambrian
and Paleozoic radiometric ages have been dredged from the crests
of the southern Mid-Atlantic, Mid-Indian, and Carlsberg ridges
(Afanas'yev et al., 1967).
_Precambrian and Paleozoic granites have been found in several
"oceanic" plateaus and islands with anomalously thick crusts,
including Rockall Plateau, Agulhas Plateau, the Seychelles, the
Obruchev Rise, Papua New Guinea, and the Paracel Islands
(Ben-Avraham et al., 1981; Sanchez Cela, 1999).
_In many cases, structural and petrological continuity exists
between continents and anomalous "oceanic" crusts -- a fact
incompatible with seafloor spreading; this applies, for example,
in the North Atlantic, where there is a continuous sialic
basement, partly of Precambrian age, from North America to
Europe.
_Major Precambrian lineaments in Australia and South America
continue into the ocean floors, implying that the "oceanic"
crust is at least partly composed of Precambrian rocks, and this
has been confirmed by deep-sea dredging, drilling, and seismic
data, and by evidence for submerged continental crust (ancient
paleolands) in the present southeast and northwest Pacific
(Choi, 1997, 1998; see below).
Marine Magnetic Anomalies
_Powerful support for seafloor spreading is said to be provided
by marine magnetic anomalies -- approximately parallel stripes
of alternating high and low magnetic intensity that characterize
much of the world's midocean ridges.
_According to the Morley-Vine-Matthews hypothesis, first
proposed in 1963, as the fluid basalt welling up along the
midocean ridges spreads horizontally and cools, it is magnetized
by the earth's magnetic field.
_Bands of high intensity are believed to have formed during
periods of normal magnetic polarity, and bands of low intensity
during periods of reversed polarity.
_They are therefore regarded as time lines or isochrons.
_As plate tectonics became accepted, attempts to test this
hypothesis or to find alternative hypotheses ceased.
_Correlations have been made between linear magnetic anomalies
on either side of a ridge, in different parts of the oceans, and
with radiometrically-dated magnetic events on land.
_The results have been used to produce maps showing how the age
of the ocean floor increases steadily with increasing distance
from the ridge axis (McGeary and Plummer, 1998, Fig. 4.19).
_As shown above, this simple picture can be sustained only by
dismissing the possibility of older sediments beneath the basalt
"basement" and by ignoring numerous "anomalously" old rock ages.
_The claimed correlations have been largely qualitative and
subjective, and are therefore highly suspect; virtually no
effort has been made to test them quantitatively by transforming
them to the pole (i.e. recalculating each magnetic profile to a
common latitude).
_In one instance where transformation to the pole was carried
out, the plate-tectonic interpretation of the magnetic anomalies
in the Bay of Biscay was seriously undermined (Storetvedt,
1997).
_Agocs, Meyerhoff, and Kis (1992) applied the same technique in
their detailed, quantitative study of the magnetic anomalies of
the Reykjanes Ridge near Iceland, and found that the
correlations were very poor; the correlation coefficient along
strike averaged 0.31 and that across the ridge 0.17, with limits
of +1 to -1.
_Linear anomalies are known from only 70% of the seismically
active midocean ridges.
_Moreover, the diagrams of symmetrical, parallel, linear bands
of anomalies displayed in many plate-tectonics publications bear
little resemblance to reality (Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1974b;
Beloussov, 1970).
_The anomalies are symmetrical to the ridge axis in less than
50% of the ridge system where they are present, and in about 21%
of it they are oblique to the trend of the ridge.
_In some areas, linear anomalies are present where a ridge
system is completely absent.
_Magnetic measurements by instruments towed near the sea bottom
have indicated that magnetic bands actually consist of many
isolated ovals that may be joined together in different ways.
_The initial, highly simplistic seafloor-spreading model for the
origin of magnetic anomalies has been disproven by ocean
drilling (Pratsch, 1986; Hall and Robinson, 1979).
_First, the hypothesis that the anomalies are produced in the
upper 500 meters of oceanic crust has had to be abandoned.
_Magnetic intensities, general polarization directions, and
often the existence of different polarity zones at different
depths suggest that the source for oceanic magnetic anomalies
lies in deeper levels of oceanic crust not yet drilled (or
dated).
_Second, the vertically alternating layers of opposing magnetic
polarization directions disprove the theory that the oceanic
crust was magnetized entirely as it spread laterally from the
magmatic center, and strongly indicate that oceanic crustal
sequences represent longer geologic times than is now believed.
_A more likely explanation of marine magnetic anomalies is that
they are caused by fault-related bands of rock of different
magnetic properties and have nothing to do with seafloor
spreading (Morris et al., 1990; Choi, Vasil'yev, and Tuezov,
1990; Pratsch, 1986; Grant, 1980).
_The fact that not all the charted magnetic anomalies are formed
of oceanic crustal materials further undermines the
plate-tectonic explanation.
_In the Labrador Sea some anomalies occur in an area of
continental crust that had previously been defined as oceanic
(Grant, 1980).
_In the northwestern Pacific some magnetic anomalies are
likewise located within an area of continental crust -- a
submerged paleoland (Choi, Vasil'yev, and Tuezov, 1990; Choi,
Vasil'yev, and Bhat, 1992).
_Magnetic-anomaly bands strike into the continents in at least
15 places and "dive" beneath Proterozoic or younger rocks.
_Furthermore, they are approximately concentric with respect to
Archean continental shields (Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1972,
1974b).
_These facts imply that instead of being a "taped record" of
seafloor spreading and geomagnetic field reversals during the
past 200 million years, most oceanic magnetic anomalies are the
sites of ancient fractures, which partly formed during the
Proterozoic and have been rejuvenated since.
_The evidence also suggests that Archean continental nuclei have
held approximately the same positions with respect to one
another since their formation -- which is utterly at variance
with continental drift.
Subduction
_Benioff zones are distinct earthquake zones that begin at an
ocean trench and slope landward and downward into the earth.
_In plate tectonics, these deep-rooted fault zones are
interpreted as "subduction zones" where plates descend into the
mantle.
_They are generally depicted as 100-km-thick slabs descending
into the earth either at a constant angle, or at a shallow angle
near the earth's surface and gradually curving around to an
angle of between 60° and 75°.
_Neither representation is correct.
_Benioff zones often consist of two separate sections: an upper
zone with an average dip of 33° extending to a depth of 70-400
km, and a lower zone with an average dip of 60° extending to a
depth of up to 700 km (Benioff, 1954; Isacks and Barazangi,
1977).
_The upper and lower segments are sometimes offset by 100-200
km, and in one case by 350 km (Benioff, 1954, Smoot, 1997a).
_Furthermore, deep earthquakes are disconnected from shallow
ones; very few intermediate earthquakes exist (Smoot, 1997a).
_Many studies have found transverse as well as vertical
discontinuities and segmentation in Benioff zones (e.g. Carr,
Stoiber, and Drake, 1973; Swift and Carr, 1974; Teisseyre et
al., 1974; Carr, 1976; Spence, 1977; Ranneft, 1979).
_The evidence therefore does not favor the notion of a
continuous, downgoing slab.
_Plate tectonicists insist that the volume of crust generated at
midocean ridges is equaled by the volume subducted.
_But whereas 80,000 km of midocean ridges are supposedly
producing new crust, only 30,500 km of trenches exist.
_Even if we add the 9000 km of "collision zones," the figure is
still only half that of the "spreading centers" (Smoot, 1997a).
_With two minor exceptions (the Scotia and Lesser Antilles
trench/arc systems), Benioff zones are absent from the margins
of the Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Oceans.
_Many geological facts demonstrate that subduction is not taking
place in the Lesser Antilles arc; if it were, the continental
Barbados Ridge should now be 200-400 km beneath the Lesser
Antilles (Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1974a).
_Kiskyras (1990) presented geological, volcanological,
petrochemical, and seismological data contradicting the belief
that the African plate is being subducted under the Aegean Sea.
_Africa is allegedly being converged on by plates spreading from
the east, south, and west, yet it exhibits no evidence
whatsoever for the existence of subduction zones or orogenic
belts.
_Antarctica, too, is almost entirely surrounded by alleged
"spreading" ridges without any corresponding subduction zones,
but fails to show any signs of being crushed.
_It has been suggested that Africa and Antarctica may remain
stationary while the surrounding ridge system migrates away from
them, but this would require the ridge marking the "plate
boundary" between Africa and Antarctica to move in opposite
directions simultaneously (Storetvedt, 1997)!
_If up to 13,000 kilometers of lithosphere had really been
subducted in circum-Pacific deep-sea trenches, vast amounts of
oceanic sediments should have been scraped off the ocean floor
and piled up against the landward margin of the trenches.
_However, sediments in the trenches are generally not present in
the volumes required, nor do they display the expected degree of
deformation (Storetvedt, 1997; Choi, 1999b; Gnibidenko, Krasny,
and Popov, 1978; Suzuki et al., 1997).
_Scholl and Marlow (1974), who support plate tectonics, admitted
to being "genuinely perplexed as to why evidence for subduction
or offscraping of trench deposits is not glaringly apparent" (p.
268).
_Plate tectonicists have had to resort to the highly dubious
notion that unconsolidated deep-ocean sediments can slide
smoothly into a Benioff zone without leaving any significant
trace.
_Moreover, fore-arc sediments, where they have been analyzed,
have generally been found to be derived from the volcanic arc
and the adjacent continental block, not from the oceanic region
(Pratsch, 1990; Wezel, 1986).
_The very low level of seismicity, the lack of a megathrust, and
the existence of flat-lying sediments at the base of oceanic
trenches contradict the alleged presence of a downgoing slab
(Dickins and Choi, 1998).
_Attempts by Murdock (1997), who accepts many elements of plate
tectonics, to publicize the lack of a megathrust in the Aleutian
trench (i.e. a million or more meters of displacement of the
Pacific plate as it supposedly underthrusts the North American
plate) have met with vigorous resistance and suppression by the
plate-tectonics establishment.
_Subduction along Pacific trenches is also refuted by the fact
that the Benioff zone often lies 80 to 150 km landward from the
trench; by the evidence that Precambrian continental structures
continue into the ocean floor; and by the evidence for submerged
continental crust under the northwestern and southeastern
Pacific, where there are now deep abyssal plains and trenches
(Choi, 1987, 1998, 1999c; Smoot 1998b; Tuezov, 1998).
_If the "Pacific plate" is colliding with and diving under the
"North American plate", there should be a stress buildup along
the San Andreas Fault.
_The deep Cajon Pass drillhole was intended to confirm this but
showed instead that no such stress is present (C. W. Hunt,
1992).
_In the active island-arc complexes of southeast Asia, the arcs
bend back on themselves, forming hairpin-like shapes that
sometimes involve full 180° changes in direction.
_This also applies to the postulated subduction zone around
India.
_How plate collisions could produce such a geometry remains a
mystery (Meyerhoff, 1995; H. A. Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1977).
_Rather than being continuous curves, trenches tend to consist
of a row of straight segments, which sometimes differ in depth
by more than 4 km.
_Aseismic buoyant features (e.g. seamounts), which are
frequently found at the juncture of these segments, are
connected with increased deep-earthquake and volcanic activity
on the landward side of the trench, whereas theoretically their
"arrival" at a subduction zone should reduce or halt such
activity (Smoot, 1997a).
_Plate tectonicists admit that it is hard to see how the
subduction of a cold slab could result in the high heat flow or
arc volcanism in back-arc regions or how plate convergence could
give rise to back-arc spreading (Uyeda, 1986).
_Evidence suggests that oceanic, continental, and back-arc rifts
are actually tensional structures developed to relieve stress in
a strong compressional stress system, and therefore have nothing
to do with seafloor spreading (Dickins, 1997).
_An alternative view of Benioff zones is that they are very
ancient contraction fractures produced by the cooling of the
earth (Meyerhoff et al., 1992b, 1996a).
_The fact that the upper part of the Benioff zones usually dips
at less than 45° and the lower part at more than 45° suggests
that the lithosphere is under compression and the lower mantle
under tension.
_Furthermore, since a contracting sphere fractures along great
circles (Bucher, 1956), this would account for the fact that
both the circum-Pacific seismotectonic belt and the
Alpine-Himalayan (Tethyan) belt lie on approximate circles.
_Finally, instead of oceanic crust being absorbed beneath the
continents along ocean trenches, continents may actually be
overriding adjacent oceanic areas to a limited extent, as is
indicated by the historical geology of China, Indonesia, and the
western Americas (Storetvedt, 1997; Pratsch, 1986; Krebs, 1975).
Uplift and Subsidence
Vertical Tectonics
_Classical plate tectonics seeks to explain all geologic
structures primarily in terms of simple lateral movements of
lithospheric plates -- their rifting, extension, collision, and
subduction.
_But random plate interactions are unable to explain the
periodic character of geological processes, i.e. the geotectonic
cycle, which sometimes operates on a global scale (Wezel, 1992).
_Nor can they explain the large-scale uplifts and subsidences
that have characterized the evolution of the earth's crust,
especially those occurring far from "plate boundaries" such as
in continental interiors, and vertical oscillatory motions
involving vast regions (Ilich, 1972; Beloussov, 1980, 1990;
Chekunov, Gordienko, and Guterman, 1990; Genshaft and
Saltykowski, 1990).
_The presence of marine strata thousands of meters above sea
level (e.g. near the summit of Mount Everest) and the great
thicknesses of shallow-water sediment in some old basins
indicate that vertical crustal movements of at least 9 km above
sea level and 10-15 km below sea level have taken place
(Spencer, 1977).
_Major vertical movements have also taken place along
continental margins.
_For example, the Atlantic continental margin of North America
has subsided by up to 12 km since the Jurassic (Sheridan, 1974).
_In Barbados, Tertiary coals representing a shallow-water,
tropical environment occur beneath deep-sea oozes, indicating
that during the last 12 million years, the crust sank to over
4-5 km depth for the deposition of the ooze and was then raised
again.
_A similar situation occurs in Indonesia, where deep-sea oozes
occur above sea level, sandwiched between shallow-water Tertiary
sediments (James, 1994).
_The primary mountain-building mechanism in plate tectonics is
lateral compression caused by collisions -- of continents,
island arcs, oceanic plateaus, seamounts, and ridges.
_In this model, subduction proceeds without mountain building
until collision occurs, whereas in the noncollision model
subduction alone is supposed to cause mountain building.
_As well as being mutually contradictory, both models are
inadequate, as several supporters of plate tectonics have
pointed out (e.g. Cebull and Shurbet, 1990, 1992; Van Andel,
1998).
_The noncollision model fails to explain how continuous
subduction can give rise to discontinuous orogeny, while the
collision model is challenged by occurrences of mountain
building where no continental collision can be assumed, and it
fails to explain contemporary mountain-building activity along
such chains as the Andes and around much of the rest of the
Pacific rim.
_Asia supposedly collided with Europe in the late Paleozoic,
producing the Ural mountains, but abundant geological field data
demonstrate that the Siberian and East European (Russian)
platforms have formed a single continent since Precambrian times
(Meyerhoff and Meyerhoff, 1974a).
_McGeary and Plummer (1998) state that the plate-tectonic
reconstruction of the formation of the Appalachians in terms of
three successive collisions of North America seems "too
implausible even for a science fiction plot" (p. 114), but add
that an understanding of plate tectonics makes the theory more
palatable.
_Ollier (1990), on the other hand, states that fanciful
plate-tectonic explanations ignore all the geomorphology and
much of the known geological history of the Appalachians.
_He also says that of all the possible mechanisms that might
account for the Alps, the collision of the African and European
plates is the most naive.
_The Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau were supposedly uplifted
by the collision of the Indian plate with the Asian plate.
_However, this fails to explain why the beds on either side of
the supposed collision zone remain comparatively undisturbed and
low-dipping, whereas the Himalayas have been uplifted,
supposedly as a consequence, some 100 km away, along with the
Kunlun mountains to the north of the Tibetan Plateau.
_River terraces in various parts of the Himalayas are almost
perfectly horizontal and untilted, suggesting that the Himalayas
were uplifted vertically, rather than as the result of
horizontal compression (Ahmad, 1990).
_Collision models generally assume that the uplift of the
Tibetan Plateau began during or after the early Eocene (post-50
million years), but paleontological, paleoclimatological,
paleoecological, and sedimentological data conclusively show
that major uplift could not have occurred before earliest
Pliocene time (5 million years ago) (Meyerhoff, 1995).
_There is ample evidence that mantle heat flow and material
transport can cause significant changes in crustal thickness,
composition, and density, resulting in substantial uplifts and
subsidences.
_This is emphasized in many of the alternative hypotheses to
plate tectonics (for an overview, see Yano and Suzuki, 1999),
such as the model of endogenous regimes (Beloussov, 1980, 1981,
1990, 1992; Pavlenkova, 1995, 1998).
_Plate tectonicists, too, increasingly invoke mantle diapirism
as a mechanism for generating or promoting tectogenesis; there
is now abundant evidence that shallow magma chambers are
ubiquitous beneath active tectonic belts.
_The popular hypothesis that crustal stretching was the main
cause of the formation of deep sedimentary basins on continental
crust has been contradicted by numerous studies; mantle
upwelling processes and lithospheric density increases are
increasingly being recognized as an alternative mechanism
(Pavlenkova, 1998; Artyushkov 1992; Artyushkov and Baer, 1983;
Anfiloff, 1992; Zorin and Lepina, 1989).
_This may involve gabbro-eclogite phase transformations in the
lower crust (Artyushkov 1992; Haxby, Turcotte, and Bird, 1976;
Joyner, 1967), a process that has also been proposed as a
possible explanation for the continuing subsidence of the North
Sea Basin, where there is likewise no evidence of large-scale
stretching (Collette, 1968).
_Plate tectonics predicts simple heat-flow patterns around the
earth.
_There should be a broad band of high heat flow beneath the full
length of the midocean rift system, and parallel bands of high
and low heat flow along the Benioff zones.
_Intraplate regions are predicted to have low heat flow.
_The pattern actually observed is quite different.
_There are criss-crossing bands of high heat flow covering the
entire surface of the earth (Meyerhoff et al., 1996a).
_Intra-plate volcanism is usually attributed to "mantle plumes"
-- upwellings of hot material from deep in the mantle,
presumably the core-mantle boundary.
_The movement of plates over the plumes is said to give rise to
hotspot trails (chains of volcanic islands and seamounts).
_Such trails should therefore show an age progression from one
end to the other, but a large majority show little or no age
progression (Keith, 1993; Baksi, 1999).
_On the basis of geological, geochemical, and geophysical
evidence, Sheth (1999) argued that the plume hypothesis is
ill-founded, artificial, and invalid, and has led earth
scientists up a blind alley.
_Active tectonic belts are located in bands of high heat flow,
which are also characterized by several other phenomena that do
not readily fit in with the plate-tectonics hypothesis.
_These include: bands of microearthquakes (including "diffuse
plate boundaries") that do not coincide with plate-tectonic
predicted locations; segmented belts of linear faults,
fractures, and fissures; segmented belts of mantle upwellings
and diapirs; vortical geological structures; linear lenses of
anomalous (low-velocity) upper mantle that are commonly overlain
by shallower, smaller low-velocity zones; the existence of
bisymmetrical deformation in all foldbelts, with coexisting
states of compression and tension; strike-slip zones and similar
tectonic lines ranging from simple rifts to Verschluckungszonen
("engulfment zones"); eastward-shifting tectonic-magmatic belts;
and geothermal zones.
_Investigation of these phenomena has led to the development of
a major new hypothesis of geodynamics, known as surge tectonics,
which rejects both seafloor spreading and continental drift
(Meyerhoff et al., 1992b, 1996a; Meyerhoff, 1995).
_Surge tectonics postulates that all the major features of the
earth's surface, including rifts, foldbelts, metamorphic belts,
and strike-slip zones, are underlain by shallow (less than 80
km) magma chambers and channels (known as "surge channels").
_Seismotomographic data suggest that surge channels form an
interconnected worldwide network, which has been dubbed "the
earth's cardiovascular system."
_Surge channels coincide with the lenses of anomalous mantle and
associated low-velocity zones referred to above, and active
channels are also characterized by high heat flow and
microseismicity.
_Magma from the asthenosphere flows slowly through active
channels at the rate of a few centimeters a year.
_Horizontal flow is demonstrated by two major surface features:
linear, belt-parallel faults, fractures, and fissures; and the
division of tectonic belts into fairly uniform segments.
_The same features characterize all lava flows and tunnels, and
have also been observed on Mars, Venus, and several moons of the
outer planets.
_Surge tectonics postulates that the main cause of geodynamics
is lithosphere compression, generated by the cooling and
contraction of the earth.
_As compression increases during a geotectonic cycle, it causes
the magma to move through a channel in pulsed surges and
eventually to rupture it, so that the contents of the channel
surge bilaterally upward and outward to initiate tectogenesis.
_The asthenosphere (in regions where it is present) alternately
contracts during periods of tectonic activity and expands during
periods of tectonic quiescence.
_The earth's rotation, combined with differential lag between
the more rigid lithosphere above and the more fluid
asthenosphere below, causes the fluid or semifluid materials to
move predominantly eastward.
_This explains the eastward migration through time of many
magmatic or volcanic arcs, batholiths, rifts, depocenters, and
foldbelts.
The Continents
_It is a striking fact that nearly all the sedimentary rocks
composing the continents were laid down under the sea.
_The continents have suffered repeated marine inundations, but
because sediments were mostly deposited in shallow water (less
than 250 m), the seas are described as "epicontinental."
_Marine transgressions and regressions are usually attributed
mainly to eustatic changes of sea level caused by alterations in
the volume of midocean ridges.
_Van Andel (1994) points out that this explanation cannot
account for the 100 or so briefer cycles of sea-level changes,
especially since transgressions and regressions are not always
simultaneous all over the globe.
_He proposes that large regions or whole continents must undergo
slow vertical, epeirogenic movements, which he attributes to an
uneven distribution of temperature and density in the mantle,
combined with convective flow.
_Some workers have linked marine inundations and withdrawals to
a global thermal cycle, bringing about continental uplift and
subsidence (Rutland, 1982; Sloss and Speed, 1974).
_Van Andel (1994) admits that epeirogenic movements "fit poorly
into plate tectonics" (p. 170), and are therefore largely
ignored.
_Van Andel (1994) asserts that "plates" rise or fall by no more
than a few hundred meters -- this being the maximum depth of
most "epicontinental" seas.
_However, this overlooks an elementary fact: huge thicknesses of
sediments were often deposited during marine incursions, often
requiring vertical crustal movements of many kilometers.
_Sediments accumulate in regions of subsidence, and their
thickness is usually close to the degree of downwarping.
_In the unstable, mobile belts bordering stable continental
platforms, many geosynclinal troughs and circular depressions
have accumulated sedimentary thicknesses of 10 to 14 km, and in
some cases of 20 km.
_Although the sedimentary cover on the platforms themselves is
often less than 1.5 km thick, basins with sedimentary
thicknesses of 10 km and even 20 km are not unknown (C. B. Hunt,
1992; Dillon, 1974; Beloussov, 1981; Pavlenkova, 1998).
_Subsidence cannot be attributed solely to the weight of the
accumulating sediments because the density of sedimentary rocks
is much lower than that of the subcrustal material; for
instance, the deposition of 1 km of marine sediment will cause
only half a kilometer or so of subsidence (Holmes, 1965;
Jeffreys, 1976).
_Moreover, sedimentary basins require not only continual
depression of the base of the basin to accommodate more
sediments, but also continuous uplift of adjacent land to
provide a source for the sediments.
_In geosynclines, subsidence has commonly been followed by
uplift and folding to produce mountain ranges, and this can
obviously not be accounted for by changes in surface loading.
_The complex history of the oscillating uplift and subsidence of
the crust appears to require deep-seated changes in lithospheric
composition and density, and vertical and horizontal movements
of mantle material.
_That density is not the only factor involved is shown by the
fact that in regions of tectonic activity vertical movements
often intensify gravity anomalies rather than acting to restore
isostatic equilibrium.
_For example, the Greater Caucasus is overloaded, yet it is
rising rather than subsiding (Beloussov, 1980; Jeffreys, 1976).
_In regions where all the sediments were laid down in shallow
water, subsidence must somehow have kept pace with
sedimentation.
_In eugeosynclines, on the other hand, subsidence proceeded
faster than sedimentation, resulting in a marine basin several
kilometers deep.
_Examples of eugeosynclines prior to the uplift stage are the
Sayans in the Early Paleozoic, the eastern slope of the Urals in
the Early and Middle Paleozoic, the Alps in the Jurassic and
Early Cretaceous, and the Sierra Nevada in the Triassic
(Beloussov, 1980).
_Plate tectonicists often claim that geosynclines are formed
solely at plate margins at the boundaries between continents and
oceans.
_However, there are many examples of geosynclines having formed
in intracontinental settings (Holmes, 1965), and the belief that
the ophiolites found in certain geosynclinal areas are
invariably remnants of oceanic crust is contradicted by a large
volume of evidence (Beloussov, 1981; Bhat, 1987; Luts, 1990;
Sheth, 1997).
The Oceans
_In the past, sialic clastic material has been transported to
today's continents from the direction of the present-day oceans,
where there must have been considerable areas of land that
underwent erosion (Dickins, Choi, and Yeates, 1992; Beloussov,
1962).
_For instance, the Paleozoic geosyncline along the seaboard of
eastern North America, an area now occupied by the Appalachian
mountains, was fed by sialic clasts from a borderland
("Appalachia") in the adjacent Atlantic.
_Other submerged borderlands include the North Atlantic
Continent or Scandia (west of Spitsbergen and Scotland),
Cascadia (west of the Sierra Nevada), and Melanesia (southeast
of Asia and east of Australia) (Umbgrove, 1947; Gilluly, 1955;
Holmes, 1965).
_A million cubic kilometers of Devonian micaceous sediments from
Bolivia to Argentina imply an extensive continental source to
the west where there is now the deep Pacific Ocean (Carey,
1994).
_During Paleozoic-Mesozoic-Paleogene times, the Japanese
geosyncline was supplied with sediments from land areas in the
Pacific (Choi, 1984, 1987).
_When trying to explain sediment sources, plate tectonicists
sometimes argue that sediments were derived from the existing
continents during periods when they were supposedly closer
together (Bahlburg, 1993; Dickins, 1994a; Holmes, 1965).
_Where necessary, they postulate small former land areas
(microcontinents or island arcs), which have since been either
subducted or accreted against continental margins as "exotic
terranes" (Nur and Ben-Avraham, 1982; Kumon et al., 1988; Choi,
1984).
_However, mounting evidence is being uncovered that favors the
foundering of sizable continental landmasses, whose remnants are
still present under the ocean floor (see below).
_Oceanic crust is regarded as much thinner and denser than
continental crust: the crust beneath oceans is said to average
about 7 km thick and to be composed largely of basalt and
gabbro, whereas continental crust averages about 35 km thick and
consists chiefly of granitic rock capped by sedimentary rocks.
_However, ancient continental rocks and crustal types
intermediate between standard "continental" and "oceanic" crust
are increasingly being discovered in the oceans (Sanchez Cela,
1999), and this is a serious embarrassment for plate tectonics.
_The traditional picture of the crust beneath oceans being
universally thin and graniteless may well be further undermined
in the future, as oceanic drilling and seismic research
continue.
_One difficulty is to distinguish the boundary between the lower
oceanic crust and upper mantle in areas where high- and
low-velocity layers alternate (Orlenok, 1986; Choi, Vasil'yev,
and Bhat, 1992).
_For example, the crust under the Kuril deep-sea basin is 8 km
thick if the 7.9 km/s velocity layer is taken as the
crust-mantle boundary (Moho), but 20-30 km thick if the 8.2 or
8.4 km/s layer is taken as the Moho (Tuezov, 1998).
_Small ocean basins cover an area equal to about 5% of that of
the continents, and are characterized by transitional types of
crust (Menard, 1967).
_This applies to the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, the
Japan Sea, the Okhotsk Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the
Mediterranean, the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay, and the marginal
(back-arc) basins along the western side of the Pacific
(Beloussov and Ruditch, 1961; Ross, 1974; Sheridan, 1974; Choi,
1984; Grant, 1992).
_In plate tectonics, the origin of marginal basins, with their
complex crustal structure, has remained an enigma, and there is
no basis for the assumption that some kind of seafloor spreading
must be involved; rather, they appear to have originated by
vertical tectonics (Storetvedt, 1997; Wezel, 1986).
_Some plate tectonicists have tried to explain the transitional
crust of the Caribbean in terms of the continentalization of a
former deep ocean area, thereby ignoring the stratigraphic
evidence that the Caribbean was a land area in the Early
Mesozoic (Van Bemmelen, 1972).
_There are over 100 submarine plateaus and aseismic ridges
scattered throughout the oceans, many of which were once
subaerially exposed (Nur and Ben-Avraham, 1982; Dickins, Choi,
and Yeates, 1992; Storetvedt, 1997).
_They make up about 10% of the ocean floor.
_Many appear to be composed of modified continental crust 20-40
km thick -- far thicker than "normal" oceanic crust.
_They often have an upper 10-15 km crust with compressional-wave
velocities typical of granitic rocks in continental crust.
_They have remained obstacles to predrift continental fits, and
have therefore been interpreted as extinct spreading ridges,
anomalously thickened oceanic crust, or subsided continental
fragments carried along by the "migrating" seafloor.
_If seafloor spreading is rejected, they cease to be anomalous
and can be interpreted as submerged, in-situ continental
fragments that have not been completely "oceanized."
_Shallow-water deposits ranging in age from mid-Jurassic to
Miocene, as well as igneous rocks showing evidence of subaerial
weathering, were found in 149 of the first 493 boreholes drilled
in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.
_These shallow-water deposits are now found at depths ranging
from 1 to 7 km, demonstrating that many parts of the present
ocean floor were once shallow seas, shallow marshes, or land
areas (Orlenok, 1986; Timofeyev and Kholodov, 1984).
_From a study of 402 oceanic boreholes in which shallow-water or
relatively shallow-water sediments were found, Ruditch (1990)
concluded that there is no systematic correlation between the
age of shallow-water accumulations and their distance from the
axes of the midoceanic ridges, thereby disproving the
seafloor-spreading model.
_Some areas of the oceans appear to have undergone continuous
subsidence, whereas others experienced alternating episodes of
subsidence and elevation.
_The Pacific Ocean appears to have formed mainly from the Late
Jurassic to the Miocene, the Atlantic Ocean from the Late
Cretaceous to the end of the Eocene, and the Indian Ocean during
the Paleocene and Eocene.
_In the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, modified continental
crust (mostly 10-20 km thick) underlies not only ridges and
plateaus but most of the ocean floor; only in deep-water
depressions is typical oceanic crust found.
_Since deep-sea drilling has shown that large areas of the North
Atlantic were previously covered with shallow seas, it is
possible that much of the North Atlantic was continental crust
before its rapid subsidence (Pavlenkova, 1995, 1998; Sanchez
Cela, 1999).
_Lower Paleozoic continental rocks with trilobite fossils have
been dredged from seamounts scattered over a large area
northeast of the Azores.
_Furon (1949) concluded that the continental cobbles had not
been carried there by icebergs and that the area concerned was a
submerged continental zone.
_Bald Mountain, from which a variety of ancient continental
material has been dredged, could certainly be a foundered
continental fragment.
_In the equatorial Atlantic, shallow-water and continental rocks
are ubiquitous (Timofeyev et al., 1992; Udintsev, 1996).
_There is evidence that the midocean ridge system was shallow or
partially emergent in Cretaceous to Early Tertiary time.
_For instance, in the Atlantic subaerial deposits have been
found on the North Brazilian Ridge (Bader et al., 1971), near
the Romanche and Vema fracture zones adjacent to equatorial
sectors of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Bonatti and Chermak, 1981;
Bonatti and Honnorez, 1971), on the crest of the Reykjanes
Ridge, and in the Faeroe-Shetland region (Keith, 1993).
_Oceanographic and geological data suggest that a large part of
the Indian Ocean, especially the eastern part, was land
("Lemuria") from the Jurassic until the Miocene.
_The evidence includes seismic and palynological data and
subaerial weathering which suggest that the Broken and Ninety
East Ridges were part of an extensive, now sunken landmass;
extensive drilling, seismic, magnetic, and gravity data pointing
to the existence an Alpine-Himalayan foldbelt in the
northwestern Indian Ocean, associated with a foundered
continental basement; data that continental basement underlies
the Scott, Exmouth, and Naturaliste plateaus west of Australia;
and thick Triassic and Jurassic sedimentation on the western and
northwestern shelves of the Australian continent which shows
progradation and current direction indicating a western source
(Dickins, 1994a; Udintsev, Illarionov, and Kalinin, 1990;
Udintsev and Koreneva, 1982; Wezel, 1988).
_Geological, geophysical, and dredging data provide strong
evidence for the presence of Precambrian and younger continental
crust under the deep abyssal plains of the present northwest
Pacific (Choi, Vasil'yev, and Tuezov, 1990; Choi, Vasil'yev, and
Bhat, 1992).
_Most of this region was either subaerially exposed or very
shallow sea during the Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic, and first
became deep sea about the end of the Jurassic.
_Paleolands apparently existed on both sides of the Japanese
islands.
_They were largely emergent during the
Paleozoic-Mesozoic-Paleogene, but were totally submerged during
Paleogene to Miocene times.
_Those on the Pacific side included the great Oyashio paleoland
and the Kuroshio paleoland.
_The latter, which was as large as the present Japanese islands
and occupied the present Nankai Trough area, subsided in the
Miocene, at the same time as the upheaval of the Shimanto
geosyncline, to which it had supplied vast amounts of sediments
(Choi, 1984, 1987; Harata et al., 1978; Kumon et al., 1988).
_There is also evidence of paleolands in the southwest Pacific
around Australia (Choi, 1997) and in the southeast Pacific
during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic (Choi, 1998; Isaacson, 1975;
Bahlburg, 1993; Isaacson and Martinez, 1995).
_After surveying the extensive evidence for former continental
land areas in the present oceans, Dickins, Choi, and Yeates
(1992) concluded:
_We are surprised and concerned for the objectivity and honesty
of science that such data can be overlooked or ignored. ...
_There is a vast need for future Ocean Drilling Program
initiatives to drill below the base of the basaltic ocean floor
crust to confirm the real composition of what is currently
designated oceanic crust.
_(p. 198)
Conclusion
_Plate tectonics -- the reigning paradigm in the earth sciences
-- faces some very severe and apparently fatal problems.
_Far from being a simple, elegant, all-embracing global theory,
it is confronted with a multitude of observational anomalies,
and has had to be patched up with a complex variety of ad-hoc
modifications and auxiliary hypotheses.
_The existence of deep continental roots and the absence of a
continuous, global asthenosphere to "lubricate" plate motions,
have rendered the classical model of plate movements untenable.
_There is no consensus on the thickness of the "plates" and no
certainty as to the forces responsible for their supposed
movement.
_The hypotheses of large-scale continental movements, seafloor
spreading and subduction, and the relative youth of the oceanic
crust are contradicted by a substantial volume of data.
_Evidence for significant amounts of submerged continental crust
in the present-day oceans provides another major challenge to
plate tectonics.
_The fundamental principles of plate tectonics therefore require
critical reexamination, revision, or rejection.
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