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       #Post#: 68--------------------------------------------------
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       By: chandna rani Date: September 9, 2023, 3:56 am
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       As a good precursor, Jean Meuvret observed in the 1960s and
       1970s that he never circulated as much wheat on the roads as in
       times of famine. These same observations were made for Italian
       cities from the 12th century onwards , and for England, Flanders
       and Spain throughout the late medieval and modern period.
       Historians of China, India, and Southeast Asia reached similar
       conclusions for these same periods.
       In other words, already in pre-industrial times, both in Europe
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       in several regions of Asia, a poor
       harvest only turned into famine if markets and speculation got
       in the way. Of course, unlike the speculation of later times,
       that of modern times also derived from the fact that the
       percentage of crops that entered the market was limited, between
       2% and 10% depending on the case. Speculation therefore
       intervened on a basis of self-consumption that ran the risk of
       being deficient at all times. At the same time, it should not be
       believed that capitalism and speculation have been constant
       since the 12th century.
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       As Karl Polanyi and many others have shown, what changes is not
       the market itself, but its forms, its extension and the role of
       institutions. In the pre-industrial era, several institutions
       intervened in the regulation of agricultural and food markets,
       precisely to address climate risks, speculation and,
       consequently, social instability. In Europe, where wheat
       predominated, the taxonomy of cereals was strongly linked to the
       social order: the elites had access to wheat and white bread,
       especially in France and in some regions of Italy, while other
       social groups had to conform with wheat mixed with other
       cereals, even with substitutes.
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