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#Post#: 32251--------------------------------------------------
The Cult Of Mithras
DIR By: patrick jane
Date: June 23, 2021, 8:08 pm
---------------------------------------------------------
The Cult Of Mithras
HTML https://history.sfsu.edu/sites/default/files/2006_Giovanna%20Palombo.pdf
The male [god] they worship is a cattle rustler, and his cult
they relate to the potency of fire.. .united by the handshake of
the illustrious Father.” So wrote the Christian writer Firmicus
Maternus about the followers of Mithras showing
much contempt and little understanding on one of the most
widespread ancient
mystery religions—Mithraism.
The worship of Mithras—a god of Persian origin—was
part of the so-called “mystery cults” that developed in the East
and rapidly spread
all over the provinces under Roman rule, reaching its greatest
extent during the
second and third centuries A.D. The present analysis will limit
its attention to three
areas only. It will first consider, Italy—mainly Rome and Ostia
where this cult was
very popular—and Gallia-Germania-Noricum (modern France,
Germany, and
Austria) and third, ancient Syria (modern eastern Turkey and
Syria) as
representatives, respectively, of western provincial territories
and an eastern
province.
In particular, two aspects will be the objects of investigation:
Mithras’
iconography and inscriptions in order to identify his visual
patterns, various
epithets, and associations with other deities, and the very
nature of the Mithraic
religion as a mystery cult. The purpose of conducting an
analysis of both the
Mithraic image, and of what it may have meant for Mithras’
worshippers to be part
of this mystery religion, will help explain the reasons for the
cult’s widespread
popularity. This cult became very popular, specifically among
the Roman soldiers
all over the empire, despite the fact that Mithras was the god
of Rome’s enemies—
the Parthians.
I will argue that the key to understand Mithras’ popularity is
to be
found, first of all, in his iconography and not his theology,
namely in his simple and
yet powerful image. Secondly, as a mystery religion, Mithras’
cult not only had a
votive character, but also offered an opportunity for a secret
brotherhood—an
organizational structure similar to a secret society of a
Masonic type that must have
been particularly appealing for soldiers. Finally, the syncretic
and universal aspects
of the Mithraic cult represent additional elements that can help
explain the Parthian
god’s popularity among the Roman troops.
Before proceeding with the analysis of why Mithraism was so
wide-spread
particularly among the soldiers, it is necessary to address the
problem of the
sources. In contrast with Mithraism’s popularity and the fact
that Mithraic
sanctuaries can be found all over the Roman provinces,
historians are faced with a
dearth of literary source material on Mithras. This is not
surprising and can be
explained in part by the fact that, as a mystery cult, Mithraism
had an element of
secrecy.
Because the written evidence on the cult of Roman Mithras is
very scarce
as few documents have survived, scholars have looked at evidence
from material
culture and, in particular, they have relied on the
comprehensive catalogue of
inscriptions and monuments which offers a valuable source about
the Mithraic cult
and its worshippers.2 While this monumental list of epigraphical
evidence provides information on both the patterns of
nomenclature for the god Mithras and the people that were
involved in this mystery cult, the archaeological remains—mainly
of architectural and pictorial nature—help identify visual
patterns associated with the Mithraic religion.
The few written documents available, the epigraphical material,
and the visual elements from material culture will constitute
the main base for the evidence presented in this article. Among
the many problems in dealing with evidence of archaeological
nature there is the fact that images, monuments, and artifacts
speak their own language, therefore attempting to “translate”
the visual into
text is a process that requires the help of various tools, such
as an understanding of the social context and values of that
particular past society.3 Thus, one should keep in mind that
ancient Romans were polytheistic and that their concept of
religion and relationship with the divine differed from the
belief system of our modern, predominately monotheistic,
society.4 In the case of Mithraism in particular, it is
necessary to consider anthropological aspects and sociological
significance of ancient mystery cults in order to understand the
appeal of the cult to many ancient Romans.
The cult of Mithras fascinated people in antiquity, and it has
also raised much interest among modern scholars. Historians have
produced a plethora of articles and books since 1896-l899.
Mithraism has attracted an enormous amount of scholarly
attention, mainly because of the supposed link with
Christianity.6 In the last few decades, the focus on the cult of
Mithras has been on theology, namely on
deciphering the “mystery” behind the mystery cult. Thus, many
historians have
looked at the Mithraic iconography and from it they have
extrapolated an abstract
meaning—often rather complex—that links Mithras to a deeper
astronomical and
astrological paradigm.7
Other analyses have pointed out a convergence of
Neoplatonic ideas with the theology of Mithraism.8 In
particular, a recent
interpretation of the so-called “Mithras Liturgy” has connected
the latter to the
theurgy, or ritual practice of the Chaldaean Oracles.
Additionally, attempts have
also been made to interpret Mithras as something else or rather
someone else, thus
speculating on the symbolism of the god and proposing an
understanding of Mithras
and its cult in allegoric terms.’° Instead of analyzing the
Mithraic theology in order
to understand the significance of Mithras and its cult, it is
necessary to focus, respectively, on his image and on the aspect
of this mystery religion as a social function and a bonding
experience among its worshippers. First of all, in order to
explain the god’s appeal a look at how Mithras was represented
in mural paintings, reliefs, and statues, is instrumental.
A reason for the popularity of Mithras’ cult was in the power of
its simple and at the same time evocative iconography. That
Mithras may have had a deeper, secondary meaning is not to be
excluded. The various interpretations of Mithraism within an
astrological context fail to explain why the cult became so
popular, particularly among soldiers. Most likely, the more
abstract meaning was known to very few worshippers of the
cult—the patres, or those at the top of the cult hierarchy.
However, it was in the direct perception of Mithras’ image—a
direct reading of his iconography that was accessible to the any
common viewer—that one can find the “mystery” of t
he cult’s appeal. Overall, Mithras’ iconography presented an
image that combined new and old, simple and familiar features
with mote exotic ones.
With very few exceptions, Mithras’ iconography is very
consistent throughout the Roman territories. Typically, he wears
Persian clothing, such as a Phrygian cap, flying cloak, tunic,
and trousers.1’ He is represented in the act of slaughtering a
bull, which he holds down with one hand while with the other
hand he holds a dagger (Mithras Tauroctonos). The Latin poet
Statius described the scene of Mithras slaying the bull
precisely as it is consistently found in archaeological
evidence, namely with the god grabbin the bull by the horns and
trying to pull the animal toward the opposite direction. 2 As
part of the bull-killing scene, one may often find a dog, a
snake, a scorpion, a crow (raven), and two
torchbearers—identified as the deities Cautes (with torch up)
and Cautopates (with torch down).’
3 Around this “standard” scene (tauroctony, or the bull
slaying), the twelve signs of the zodiac also appear in some
cases.’4 In addition, there are some images of a banquet between
Mithras and the sun-god and representations of his birth from a
rock.’5 His
peculiar birth not only appears in inscriptions and is
represented in statues, but it is
also mentioned in Firmicus Maternus, who called Mithras O , or
“the god
(born) from the rock,” and in Commodianus, who referred to the
Persian god as
“invictus de petra natus [...] deus” (the invincible god born
from a rock).16 finally,
other elements in the Mithraic imagery are the presence of stars
on his flying cloak
or around his head, and sun rays and a nimbus also around his
head. 17
Despite his Persian attire, Mithras’ image must have appeared
very familiar
and rather appealing to the soldiers, since the god represents a
hunter—or rather a
hero—and conveys the idea of strength, courage, and
invincibility.’8 Mithras appears
as “an energetic god, active, unconquerable, unsurpassable.”9
The god’s image is
very powerful in its straightforwardness. The power of Mithras’
image lies in his
direct appeal: the act that the god is performing is not
mysterious or unusual, but
rather evokes a familiar context to soldiers, namely a fight, a
struggle in order to
subdue the dangerous “other” or the enemy.
Mithras was thought to be the creator
and father of all, the Demiurge, whose creative energy generated
and still permeates
the entire cosmos. The god Mithras struggled with the white
cosmic bull, which he
finally overcame and killed.20 The bull represented a force that
had to be subdued,
like the enemies of Rome.
In essence, Mithras’ image is simple and primordial as it
incorporates recognizable elements (sun as the good force and
bull as the
antagonist—a strong power to fight against) and, at the same
time, it is peculiar and
unfamiliar (the god’s eastern attire). The Mithraic scene also
portrays a scorpion, a
snake, and a dog that appear to be wanting to extract the life
out of the slaughtered
bull by attacking its genitals. This image expresses a concept
of cosmic opposites—
the duality of good versus evil (Mithras versus his
antagonists). Thus, Mithraic
iconography is ultimately universal in his syncretism of old and
new, familiar and
unfamiliar, good and bad.
Furthermore, the contrast between unfamiliar versus familiar
features in
Mithras’ representation is mirrored in his nomenclature and
connection with other
gods. On the one hand, like his attire, the god’s name is
“foreign” since it is a
Latinized form, through the Greek, of the Avestan “Mithra” that
means “pact,
contract, covenant.”2’ On the other hand, Mithras is familiar as
his portrayal appears
in association with other deities, such as Apollo, Helios,
tuppiter Dolichenus, and
Hercules, hence showing that the Persian god was of the same
“status” as longestablished, well-known deities. For instance,
one of the oldest Mithraic monuments from Roman times shows the
association Apollo-Mithras-Helios.22 In general, various deities
are present in Mithraic sanctuaries—deities that were supposed
to protect each grade of initiate (such as Venus for the second
grade).23
A strange- looking figure is often found connected to the cult
of Mithras—a lion-headed god, who is encircled by the coils of a
snake and may likely represent Aion, also identified as Chronos
(time or cosmic eternity).
More importantly, Mithras is connected with the cult of the sot
invictus, or unconquered sun? This is not surprising, since
Mithras was not only linked to the idea of contract, but he was
also the Persian god of light and justice. Although Mithras and
the sun-god are separate in the Persian myth, yet their figures
often tend to merge and blend.26 Altars to sot invictus have
been found in Mithraic sanctuaries
along with inscriptions attributing that title (either sot
invictus or deus sot invictus) to Mithras himself.27
Undoubtedly, the appellative of “invincible” given to Mithras
along with the persistent emphasis upon light and brightness
made this god very attractive in the eyes of the soldiers.28 In
addition, the Mithras-sun association conferred a universal
character to the deity, since the sun is a primordial and
powerful element that was an object of worship in many ancient
societies, both east and west.
In addition to the iconography, a look at the Mithraic
membership, the places
of worship, the organizational structure, and at Mithraism
within the context of
mystery religions can provide useful insights into the
significance of the cult,
ultimately explaining its popularity. Mithraism was not
exclusively the cult of the
Roman soldiers, since members of the imperial administrative
service, merchants,
and freedmen also worshipped the Persian god—as it is well
attested in the many
Mithraic sanctuaries in the ancient port of Ostia.
29 Since Roman religion was a
“social” religion—meaning that it was closely linked to the
community, not to the
individual—a cult may fulfill different roles among different
social groups.3° Roman
gods usually varied according to the community concerned: “they
were, so to speak,
members of the same community as their worshippers.”3t Thus, the
meaning of
Mithraism among the soldiers may not have been the same as the
one among
civilians.
For the purpose of this analysis, the emphasis is placed on
Mithraism as
the religion of Roman troops, because the cult of Mithras was
predominantly
popular in the army and, in fact, it was the latter that had
been responsible for
bringing this religious practice all over the Roman
territories—from south-east
toward north-west. Additionally, Mithraism was confined almost
exclusively to
men.32 Therefore, one should look at what made this god so
appealing to men and
soldiers in particular.
Since the Roman cult of Mithras was mainly linked to soldiers, a
look at
religions and cults among military men is instrumental.
Mithraism can be defined
overall as the religion of the Roman soldiers par excellence
during the empire.33 The
definition “religion of the Roman soldiers” instead of “religion
of the Roman army”
is used on purpose and has its reason.
In fact, the Roman army had official religious
practices, such as the cult of the standards—which included the
gold eagle, the
images of the emperor, the vexilium (flag), and the sacramentum
(sacred oath). The
army also celebrated various religious ceremonies and festivals
throughout the year,
as attested in the Feriale Duranum, a calendar found at
Dura-Europos that marked
the numerous religious observations during the entire military
religious year.33
These official religious observances intended to identify the
life of the individual
soldier and of the individual legion with the destiny of Rome,
maintained the esprit
do corps, and created a social structure based on values such as
discipline, loyalty, and tradition.35 Additionally, since most
religious celebrations coincided with public festivals of the
civilian population, these religious practices connected the
Roman
army—at least symbolically—to the society of Roman civilians.
However, Mithraism fell under the so-called unofficial army
cults and served a different purpose. The cult of Mithras was
the soldier’s personal religion as opposed to the army religion
that was imposed from above.36 Roman soldiers needed
something—or rather someone—they could identify with, and the
“unconquerable” Mithras with his features of physical strength,
courage, and victory over a dangerous antagonist fit well such
need. Thus, soldiers must have felt drawn to this decidedly
forceful god. The dualism of Mithraism also appealed to the
soldiers, namely the struggle between good and evil, light and
darkness, order and chaos in which Mithras was fighting on
behalf of Rome as a good, civilized power against the disorderly
barbarians.
In addition to membership, the physical setting of the cult of
Mithras helps to define its character and meaning, and hence its
appeal. Like Mithras’ portrayals
appear very uniform, his sanctuaries, or ,nithraea, also share
similar features throughout the empire.37 The consistency in the
architectural and pictorial features of the mithraea can be
explained in view of the fact that “the religious use of space
enabled the soldier to orient himself... Roman soldiers often
moved from place to place, and the religious use of space helped
keep them from becoming disoriented.”38 The mithraeum—or temple
for the worship of Mithras—was built to resemble the cave
(spetaeurn) in which Mithras was supposed to have captured and
killed the divine bull. The ,nithraea were small and
tunnel-like.39 Because it was supposed to resemble a cave, the
space was rather dark and often underground and
was often decorated with the signs of the Zodiac in order to
represent an image of the cosmos itself.4° The focus of the
temple interior was a marble relief or a painting on the
opposite end of the entrance, portraying Mithras killing the
bull.
Two interesting elements emerge from the mithraeum spatial
configuration. One characteristic is the small size of these
temples—a peculiarity that suggests that the number of
worshippers in any one place must have been also small. Thus,
“the small group of men in the caves must have experienced an
intimate feeling of togetherness.”4’ Instead of building bigger
sanctuaries as the cult membership grew, Mithras’ worshippers
kept utilizing a religious space that could accommodate few
devotees at once, hence maintaining a sense of familiarity and
intimacy within each
group. As a result, as they gathered in small groups, they were
able to form a closekin brotherhood with welt-defined grades of
membership.
42 Secondly, the
mithraeum itself was an intimate space that resembled a dinning
room with Mithras,
as the host of the banquet, sitting at the head of the table. In
fact, along the sides of
the nsithraeum, there were benches on which the worshippers
reclined at ritual
meals.43 There is no reason to doubt that the allegoric scene
representing Mithras
and Helios feasting together, which is frequently present in
Mithraic iconography,
had a realistic counterpart in enjoyable banquets with plenty of
food consumed by
the devotees.
The archaeological evidence confirms this. In excavated mithraea
the
remnants of animal bones of various species clearly indicate
that the benches on the
sides were not used just for praying, but also as couches on
which substantial meals
were consumed. One can clearly see how the ritual became a
social experience.
Thus, “the religion was always world-affirming rather than
world-denying.”45
However, along with Mithras’ image as a hunter or victorious
fighter, and
along with the small size of Mithraic community where devotees
could closely
interact with one another, an element that played a significant
role in the popularity
of Mithraism was its rank structure.
The cult of Mithras contributed to the creation
and consolidation of ties among the soldiers mainly because the
Mithraic
community was a highly structured organization. In fact, the
worshippers were
grouped according to seven levels or grades by which they
progressed through
successive stages of initiation as mote of the mysteries of the
cult were revealed to
them. The seven grades were Corax (Raven), Nymphus (Gryphon /
Griffin or
Bridegroom or Embryo—scholars disagree on the translation of
this term), Mites
(Soldier), Leo (Lion), Perses (Persian), Heliodrornus (Courier
of the Sun), and Peter
(Father).
The Mithraic hierarchy must have reminded the soldier of the
army
hierarchy; hence the idea of a well-structured order was
something familiar to the
Mithraic worshipper. It was in the highly hierarchical structure
of its community
that the cult of Mithras differed from most other mystery cults.
Mithras’ cult presented an organizational system similar to a
“church order.”47
Every Mithraic unit was a small face-to-face group, in which
relations of authority
were clearly defined by the seven grades and ultimately
sanctioned by religious
beliefs.
The head of each group was the peter, or Father—an individual
who had
reached the seventh grade of the Mithraic hierarchy. He embodied
the highest
authority—all the members were subordinated to him—and, as
emblems of his power,
he carried the Phrygian cap (like Mithras) and Saturn’s sickle,
and wore a special ring38 He decided whom to admit to the cult,
supervised the rituals, and was responsible for initiations and
grade promotions.49 Thus, Mithraism can be seen as a “divine”
replication of social, “ordinary” (in this case, military)
experience, since it reinforced hierarchy and authority.50
Because Mithraism had a “rank” structure in the seven grades of
the cult, it appealed both to the soldiers working their way up
through the ranks and to the officers, who saw the Mithraic
hierarchy as a religious duplication and reaffirmation of the
military hierarchy.5’ This made the cult of Mithras a familiar
practice in the eyes of the soldiers and a “safe” cult for the
authorities. Mithraism included both
common soldiers and military officers, therefore it was not
perceived as a suspicious club that may trigger revolts against
the superiors.
52 As a matter of fact, there was no “revolutionary” message in
the Mithraic cult. The typical worshipper of Mithras
as depicted in paintings is young and strong, the image of
social conformity, not of marginality. His promotion through the
grades was achieved only by acceptance of and submission to
authority.53 There was no hint of any desire to break social
boundaries in Mithraism. On the contrary, in its strict
hierarchy, the entire secret ritual reinforced social
boundaries. Ultimately, the cult of Mithras combined “the
hierarchic and disciplined structures and values of its male
members [...J with a new integrated view of the cosmos now
completely structured in terms of masculine attributes”—a
masculinity that was epitomized in the bull-slaying icon.
50 Since Mithraism intended to mirror the social organization in
its religious hierarchy, this could explain the “almost” absence
of women in the cult due to a replication of the
army structure—in which women were not present—and not
necessarily a misogynist feature of the cult.55 It is also
noteworthy that until about 195 A.D., there was a peculiar
refusal of the Roman army to approve of the legal marriage of
soldiers.
Therefore, “the religious fife of Mithraism was more closely
modeled on the values
of the camp than of the domestic hearth.”56
More importantly, a major factor contributing to the popularity
of Mithraism is
its very nature as a mystery cult. The diffusion of mystery
religions, such as the cult
of Isis, the Great Mother, and Mithras, was an important
religious phenomenon that
characterized the Roman Empire.57 In ancient times, religion was
the product of
various concerns—political, social, and psychological.
For the Roman soldier in particular, religion provided a
structure that helped him distinguish between Roman
and alien (“the other”, the enemy), between order and chaos.
However, while this
function was mainly covered by the army official cults, it was
rather in a mystery
cult—such as was the case of Mithraism—that the Roman soldiers
could have found a
personal, more intimate shelter from the hazards of military
life. The army proved
effective in its ability to control the natural fear in the
soldiers’ lives by promoting
religious festivals, oaths, and the signa.
In addition, the strict military disciptina was certainly a
powerful antidote against the unconscious impulse of fear.
However, it
was in ritual behavior (and mysteries had well-defined rituals)
that soldiers found
comfort for their own anxieties.56 Thus, Mithraism as a mystery
religion was very
powerful in helping the soldiers dealing with their fears to a
greater extent than the
official army cults, because of its votive character and the
fact that it provided
protection by reinforcing ties among its adepts.
The concept of votive religion constituted the basis of a
mystery cult.59 Most
historians have looked at mystery cults and defined them as a
form of personal
religion aimed at some sort of salvation. Thus, many scholars
have interpreted
Mithraism as a cosmic religion of salvation.65 If salvation of
one’s soul had been
indeed at the core of this cult, one may have a difficult time
explaining why
Mithraism had no flrncmry symbolism and there were no statues of
the dead or
Mithraic sarcophagi.6t
On the contrary, the cult of Mithras and mysteries in general
arc to be understood as personal religions at a more elementary
level, namely as the
practice of making vows. Mithraism shares in the general
instrumental nature of
Roman religion that was characterized by a highly developed
contractual relation to
the gods.62 tt may not be a coincidence that the name of Mithms
itself indicates the
idea of contract.63 Worshippers—in this case, soldiers—made
promises to Mithras through offerings and rituals expected
protection in return, either because they were in danger or ill.
The concept of do Ut des was a means to appease one’s agonizing
experience of distress during military campaigns.tu Many
Mithraic inscriptions clearly show this votive nature and
express the devotee’s gratefulness towards the
god, who had provided protection.
65 Overall, Mithraism provided “vertical” as well as
“horizontal” protection. One the one hand, protection came from
above—from Mithras and the other deities associated with him,
such as the protective gods of the seven grades. On the other
hand, protection also came from the other worshippers within
one’s Mithraic community—both from those of higher ranks and
from one’s peers. Knowing that
one could count on divine assistance as well as on companions in
both combat and
prayer, helped to reduce the anxieties of fighting in war. tt is
also worth noting that in his myth Mithras appears as the one
bringing world-order, strong, invincible, and, most importantly,
unlike other gods, he does not die.66 The absence of death in
the Mithraic myth must have provided the soldiers with a
powerful sense of reassurance and self-confidence vis-a-vis
dangers.
Mithraism was not only about coping with fear, seeking
protection (divine or human), and reinforcing the notion of
authority through a rigid—but at the same time
familiar—hierarchical structure. Mithraism was also about
creating ties, bonding together and the unconscious need to
belong. Vertical tics were accompanied by equally strong
horizontal ones. Mithraic groups emphasized their communal
feeling by stressing the importance of the collectivity over the
individual. It is worth noting that the term “Mithraist” is a
modern scholarly creation. Instead, one name that
Mithras’ worshippers used for themselves was syndexioi, or
“those linked by the
handshake.” Final admission into the Mithraic community was
scaled by a
handshake (öciwatç) with the pater. Last but not least, we know
that as a group, they were jointly united by the oath.67
A famous inscription, discovered in Rome on
the Campus Martius and written by the pater Proficentius,
commemorates in verses
the founding of a mithraeum and refers to the handshake as a
marker of Mithras’
worshippers;
This spot is blessed, holy, observant and bounteous: Mithras
marked it,
and made known to Proficentius, Father of the Mysteries, That he
should
build a dedicate a Cave to him; And he has accomplished swiftly,
tirelessly, this dear task That under such protection he began,
desirous
That the Hand-shaken (Lat. syndexi) might make their vows
joyfully for
ever. These poor lines Proficentius composed, Most worthy Father
of
Mithras.66
It is noteworthy that the “cave” is consecrated to the god
Mithras so that “vows”
could be made to him on behalf of the worshippers that are
called “the Handshaken.” These verses reiterate three elements
that characterize the Mithraic cult, namely that Mithraism was a
religion ofsmall groups (a fact that appears clear from
the fact that most “caves” were incapable of hosting more than
ten or twelve
individuals), that the cult had a votive character, and that its
members were tied
together through a pact sealed by a handshake.
This act of handshaking was performed not only among the cult
members but
also between Mithras and the sun-god, hence turning such action
into a symbolic
marker of this cult. A recurrent scene in Mithraist iconography
is the so-called “pact
of friendship”—an image in which Mithras and the sun-god stand
in front of each
other as equal partners and shake their right hands (sometimes
in front of an altar).69
Among the Greeks and Romans handshaking (iuncfio dextrarum, or
joining of the
right hands) was not an everyday gesture as it is now in western
societies. Rather, it
was a sign of very close friendship.
70 Often friends who returned from a long journey were received
with a handshake, or the same gesture was used to sanction
an agreement.71 Therefore, with the handshake, Mithras and the
sun-god are settling
a pact.72 The pact between the deities was the model for the
ritual handshake
between the pater and the initiate.
Bound by both an oath and a handshake, Mithras’ worshippers must
have
known one another very well and provided reciprocal help like
the brothers of a
Masonic lodge. Thus, the cult also had a sociological aspect,
not just a religious one.
As a cult of men and specifically soldiers, it had the features
of a brotherhood—an
organization based on principles such as secrecy, loyalty, and
unity in the fight for
mutual interests.
By creating a boundary between “those who belonged” and the
outsiders, it reinforced the idea of being Roman soldiers as
opposed to the “others”
(the enemies), hence reinforcing the group’s inward-looking
solidarity. Additionally, the element of secrecy created strong
cohesiveness. One should not
ignore the fact that the Mithraic religious experience had
“effects upon the earthy community, particularly in relation to
the sense of mutual belonging.”73
Moreover, like any secret society of any given time, the cult of
Mithras had a
rite of initiation based on the notion of re-birth, a highly
hierarchical structure, and a
strong congregational aspect.
74 One can certainly speak of the Mithraic community
as being based on sodalitas (companionship), a society formed by
socii and amid.75
Numerous inscriptions utilize the words socius and sodalicio.76
Indeed, the devoted
members must have spent together considerable amount of time,
energy, and money
for the god and for their fellow-initiates. Obligations similar
to those of private
amicitia might have included helping in burial and funeral, as
was the case in other
mystery cults—although the evidence for it in regard to the
Mithraic cult is scarce.77
In essence, the Mithraic communities were not only spiritual
brotherhoods tied
together by spiritual bonds, but they were also associations
that enjoyed the right of holding property, that provided legal
assistance to his members, and that elected
officers.78
Thus, the aspect of the cult of Mithms as a social experience of
bonding together makes sense especially when one considers the
fact that soldiers were away
from home and most of the timc in unfamiliar environments. “The
development of
the associative phenomenon of religious matters is also
characteristic of a fairly
mobile population, where the individual was no longer part of a
fixed family or a
city in the traditional sense of the word. These cultist clubs
housed in the Mithraic
caverns ... gave the rootless immigrants to Rome [and—I would
add—the soldiers as
well], of every race and class, the feeling that they had found
the comfort of a piety
closer to gods and men.
”79 In essence, Mithraism sought to secure an “at-home”
feeling by strengthening social ties. Additionally, the cult of
Mithras also served as
reinforcement of its members’ identity.8° Mithraism perfectly
fit within the larger
context of the mystery religions, because “the mystery discourse
established
sociopolitical identity for the alienated individual, whether
rural (Eleusinian) or
urban (Isiac), male (Mithraic) or female (Dionysian).ss
A last element that can help explain the popularity of the cult
of Mithras was
its universal and syncretic character, which stemmed from both
its parthianitas and
romanhtas. The Persian origin of Mithraism is not much disputed,
although there
may be no clear relationship with the Persian religion of
Zoroastrianism.82 Mithras’
origin can be traced among the Indo-Aryan people. According to
Plutarch, the cult
was popular among Cilician pirates, who introduced the
celebration of the Mithraic
mysteries into the Roman world around the first century B.C.83
After defeating the
sea raiders,
Pompey seems to have settled a good number of them in Calabria—a
fact
that helps explain how Mithraism arrived in Italy.84 However, it
was not until the
end of the second century AD. that the worship of Mithras became
widespread first
among the Roman soldiers in the east and then, moving westward
and northward, all
over the provinces.85 Whether its point of origin was actually
Parthia or Anatolia Syria, Mithraism has a clear connotation of
parthianitas, which is attested by both the god’s attire and the
use of the Persian word “nama” (= hail! or long live...!) as a
form of greeting among Mithras’ worshippers.
86 Both Firmicus Matemus and Porphyty stressed the Persian
origin ofthe god.87 Although Roman Mithras maintained Parthian
attributes, his cult underwent
some changes when it became popular among Roman troops. Before
his introduction into the Roman world, Mithras in association
with the sun-god was simply a symbol of fertility.88 From the
bull, the plantllife tvas born (see the ears of grain coming out
of the bull’s tail). His cult arrived in the western part of the
Roman Empire from the Hellenized East.89 Even Alexander the
Great is said to have been initiated into Persian Mithraism.
According to Q. Curtius Rufus, “the king himself with his
generals and staff passed around the ranks of the armed men,
praying to the
sun and Mithra and the sacred eternal fire to inspire them with
courage worthy of their ancient fame and the monuments of their
ancestors.”9° When the god arrived in the West, his myth focused
in particular on the killing of the bull, the concept of re
birth, the ideals of strength and invincibility, and the dualism
of order-chaos.
More importantly, the god’s exotidness may have made him
attractive, in a manner similar
to other “foreign” deities such as the Egyptian isis. In
essence, his parthianitas made him popular. His foreignness gave
him a reassuring connotation of impartiality—a virtue that may
have been very appealing to a diverse group such as the Roman
imperial army.
Despite the fact that the worship of Mithras had a Persian oriin
and maintained traces of its native cult, Mithraism became
“utterly Roman.”9 It was “Roman” in the sense that the cult had
a “pragmatic” feature. The strong element of pragmatism in Roman
society and culture influenced the Weltanschauung of its
citizens in many aspects, including that of religion. Not only
did Roman religion with its polytheistic character allow for the
worship of many deities at the same time, but also it was
specifically the fundamental pragmatism of ancient Romans that
caused them to try other practices when the old rituals appeared
ineffectual.
92 This opened the way to foreign cults, like the mystery cults.
In Roman religion there
was no jealousy or exclusivity when it came to worshipping
deities, but instead a
sense of inclusiveness. The pragmatic aspect of Mithraism can
also be seen in both
its previously discussed nature as a votive religion, as well as
in its willingness to
include other gods within the cult. Just as rornanitas extended
all over the provinces
thorough the extension of Roman citizenship, the cult of Mithras
integrated other
deities, hence assuming a trait of universality.
An attractive feature of Mithraism was that each grade of thc
hierarchy had a
specific protective deity and associated emblems. The deities
were respectively—in
order from the first to the seventh grade—Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, Moon, Sun,
and Saturn. Therefore, the mithraeum presented itself as a sort
of pantheon, a
sanctuary including the main and best-known deities. This can
help explain the
appeal of the Mithras’ religion in the eyes of soldiers coming
from a variety of
different places, namely its universal and comprehensive
character.
Although
centered on the figure the Mithras, Mithraism was more than just
that god’s cult. It
was a cult that included other deities and that also
incorporated the signs of the
zodiac into an all-inclusive system.
Thus, Mithras combined elements that may have appeared exotic
(his origin
and attire) with aspects that were very familiar to the Roman
world. The god
remained in part Persian and became in part Roman—resulting in a
syncretic
character that made him universal. On the one hand, Mithras’
universality stems
from his own parthianiras or the fact that Mithras was a
Parthian, hence a foreign
god that did not come from any of the Roman provinces.
This conferred him a
neutral and impartial character—and ultimately a universal
one—making him easily
accepted in an army formed by soldiers that came from all
different parts of the
empire. The idea that Mithraism stands as evidence for the
“barbarization” of the
army is to be rejected.93 On the other hand, the cult of Mithras
was universal in the
sense that it was very Roman and all-inclusive of Roman
religion.
In essence,
because of its syncretic character, Mithraism was the religion
of no one place and of
all places, of no one single god and of many gods, hence it was
universal. Although
some historians have seen Mithraism and the worship of the sun
god (the latter
promoted especially during the reigns of the emperors Elagabalus
and Aurelian) as a
“growing drift into monotheism,” the presence of many other gods
in the Mithraic
shrines makes Mithraism appear as the apogee of paganism (more
precisely,
henotheism) and of rolnanitas.
In conclusion, the cult of Mithras was popular among the Roman
soldiers for a
number of reasons, including the god’s powerful image, the
highly hierarchical
Mithraic structure, the very nature of Mithraism as a mystery
cult and its emphasis
on votive character, the aspect of brotherhood that each
community fostered, and the
inclusiveness of other deities that made the religion universal.
In his simplicity and
direct iconographical representation, Mithras was very
compelling for Roman
soldiers, since the god embodied notions such as strength,
invincibility, and
courage, and he marked a clear boundary between “us” and the
“other” in the
dualism of good versus evil and light versus darkness.
The rank structure provided a system that was familiar to the
soldiers in reinforcing hierarchy, authority, and ultimately
order; whereas the votive character of the cult helped them cope
with their fears and anxieties. Most importantly, Mithras’
widespread popularity throughout the Roman Empire resulted from
his syncretic and universal character, and from the nature of
the Mithraic community as not only a religious group, but also
as a brotherhood. Moreover, small ,nithraea meant that the group
of worshippers that met there was also small. The space itself
was utilized for communal ceremonial meals. Even if coated with
religious ritual, the act of eating together was undoubtedly a
social function. Vertical and horizontal ties constituted
unifying forces that were at least as compelling—if not more—as
any promise for salvation.
Without completely discarding the significance of Mithraic
theology (including its complex symbolism and liturgy),
Mithraism was not simply a religious community, but rather a
religion and a community. In essence, the cult of Mithras was a
social and psychological phenomenon and not merely a religious
practice, because it was about bonding as much as it was about
spirituality.
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