Python Documentation contents
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* What’s New in Python

  * What’s New In Python 3.6

    * Summary – Release highlights

    * New Features

      * PEP 498: Formatted string literals

      * PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations

      * PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals

      * PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators

      * PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions

      * PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation

      * PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements

      * PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol

      * PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation

      * PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8

      * PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

      * PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

      * PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order

      * New "dict" implementation

      * PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

      * PYTHONMALLOC environment variable

      * DTrace and SystemTap probing support

    * Other Language Changes

    * New Modules

      * secrets

    * Improved Modules

      * array

      * ast

      * asyncio

      * binascii

      * cmath

      * collections

      * concurrent.futures

      * contextlib

      * datetime

      * decimal

      * distutils

      * email

      * encodings

      * enum

      * faulthandler

      * fileinput

      * hashlib

      * http.client

      * idlelib and IDLE

      * importlib

      * inspect

      * json

      * logging

      * math

      * multiprocessing

      * os

      * pathlib

      * pdb

      * pickle

      * pickletools

      * pydoc

      * random

      * re

      * readline

      * rlcompleter

      * shlex

      * site

      * sqlite3

      * socket

      * socketserver

      * ssl

      * statistics

      * struct

      * subprocess

      * sys

      * telnetlib

      * time

      * timeit

      * tkinter

      * traceback

      * tracemalloc

      * typing

      * unicodedata

      * unittest.mock

      * urllib.request

      * urllib.robotparser

      * venv

      * warnings

      * winreg

      * winsound

      * xmlrpc.client

      * zipfile

      * zlib

    * Optimizations

    * Build and C API Changes

    * Other Improvements

    * Deprecated

      * New Keywords

      * Deprecated Python behavior

      * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

        * asynchat

        * asyncore

        * dbm

        * distutils

        * grp

        * importlib

        * os

        * re

        * ssl

        * tkinter

        * venv

      * Deprecated functions and types of the C API

      * Deprecated Build Options

    * Removed

      * API and Feature Removals

    * Porting to Python 3.6

      * Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior

      * Changes in the Python API

      * Changes in the C API

      * CPython bytecode changes

    * Notable changes in Python 3.6.2

      * New "make regen-all" build target

      * Removal of "make touch" build target

  * What’s New In Python 3.5

    * Summary – Release highlights

    * New Features

      * PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax

      * PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix
        multiplication

      * PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations

      * PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray

      * PEP 484 - Type Hints

      * PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster
        directory iterator

      * PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR

      * PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators

      * PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality

      * PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual
        environments

      * PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files

      * PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization

    * Other Language Changes

    * New Modules

      * typing

      * zipapp

    * Improved Modules

      * argparse

      * asyncio

      * bz2

      * cgi

      * cmath

      * code

      * collections

      * collections.abc

      * compileall

      * concurrent.futures

      * configparser

      * contextlib

      * csv

      * curses

      * dbm

      * difflib

      * distutils

      * doctest

      * email

      * enum

      * faulthandler

      * functools

      * glob

      * gzip

      * heapq

      * http

      * http.client

      * idlelib and IDLE

      * imaplib

      * imghdr

      * importlib

      * inspect

      * io

      * ipaddress

      * json

      * linecache

      * locale

      * logging

      * lzma

      * math

      * multiprocessing

      * operator

      * os

      * pathlib

      * pickle

      * poplib

      * re

      * readline

      * selectors

      * shutil

      * signal

      * smtpd

      * smtplib

      * sndhdr

      * socket

      * ssl

        * Memory BIO Support

        * Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support

        * Other Changes

      * sqlite3

      * subprocess

      * sys

      * sysconfig

      * tarfile

      * threading

      * time

      * timeit

      * tkinter

      * traceback

      * types

      * unicodedata

      * unittest

      * unittest.mock

      * urllib

      * wsgiref

      * xmlrpc

      * xml.sax

      * zipfile

    * Other module-level changes

    * Optimizations

    * Build and C API Changes

    * Deprecated

      * New Keywords

      * Deprecated Python Behavior

      * Unsupported Operating Systems

      * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

    * Removed

      * API and Feature Removals

    * Porting to Python 3.5

      * Changes in Python behavior

      * Changes in the Python API

      * Changes in the C API

  * What’s New In Python 3.4

    * Summary – Release Highlights

    * New Features

      * PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python
        Installations

        * Bootstrapping pip By Default

        * Documentation Changes

      * PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable

      * Improvements to Codec Handling

      * PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

      * Other Language Changes

    * New Modules

      * asyncio

      * ensurepip

      * enum

      * pathlib

      * selectors

      * statistics

      * tracemalloc

    * Improved Modules

      * abc

      * aifc

      * argparse

      * audioop

      * base64

      * collections

      * colorsys

      * contextlib

      * dbm

      * dis

      * doctest

      * email

      * filecmp

      * functools

      * gc

      * glob

      * hashlib

      * hmac

      * html

      * http

      * idlelib and IDLE

      * importlib

      * inspect

      * ipaddress

      * logging

      * marshal

      * mmap

      * multiprocessing

      * operator

      * os

      * pdb

      * pickle

      * plistlib

      * poplib

      * pprint

      * pty

      * pydoc

      * re

      * resource

      * select

      * shelve

      * shutil

      * smtpd

      * smtplib

      * socket

      * sqlite3

      * ssl

      * stat

      * struct

      * subprocess

      * sunau

      * sys

      * tarfile

      * textwrap

      * threading

      * traceback

      * types

      * urllib

      * unittest

      * venv

      * wave

      * weakref

      * xml.etree

      * zipfile

    * CPython Implementation Changes

      * PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators

      * PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization

      * PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm

      * PEP 436: Argument Clinic

      * Other Build and C API Changes

      * Other Improvements

      * Significant Optimizations

    * Deprecated

      * Deprecations in the Python API

      * Deprecated Features

    * Removed

      * Operating Systems No Longer Supported

      * API and Feature Removals

      * Code Cleanups

    * Porting to Python 3.4

      * Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior

      * Changes in the Python API

      * Changes in the C API

    * Changed in 3.4.3

      * PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for
        stdlib http clients

  * What’s New In Python 3.3

    * Summary – Release highlights

    * PEP 405: Virtual Environments

    * PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages

    * PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol
      documentation

      * Features

      * API changes

    * PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

      * Functionality

      * Performance and resource usage

    * PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows

    * PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy

    * PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

    * PEP 409: Suppressing exception context

    * PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals

    * PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions

    * PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary

    * PEP 362: Function Signature Object

    * PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

      * SimpleNamespace

    * Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

      * New APIs

      * Visible Changes

    * Other Language Changes

    * A Finer-Grained Import Lock

    * Builtin functions and types

    * New Modules

      * faulthandler

      * ipaddress

      * lzma

    * Improved Modules

      * abc

      * array

      * base64

      * binascii

      * bz2

      * codecs

      * collections

      * contextlib

      * crypt

      * curses

      * datetime

      * decimal

        * Features

        * API changes

      * email

        * Policy Framework

        * Provisional Policy with New Header API

        * Other API Changes

      * ftplib

      * functools

      * gc

      * hmac

      * http

      * html

      * imaplib

      * inspect

      * io

      * itertools

      * logging

      * math

      * mmap

      * multiprocessing

      * nntplib

      * os

      * pdb

      * pickle

      * pydoc

      * re

      * sched

      * select

      * shlex

      * shutil

      * signal

      * smtpd

      * smtplib

      * socket

      * socketserver

      * sqlite3

      * ssl

      * stat

      * struct

      * subprocess

      * sys

      * tarfile

      * tempfile

      * textwrap

      * threading

      * time

      * types

      * unittest

      * urllib

      * webbrowser

      * xml.etree.ElementTree

      * zlib

    * Optimizations

    * Build and C API Changes

    * Deprecated

      * Unsupported Operating Systems

      * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

      * Deprecated functions and types of the C API

      * Deprecated features

    * Porting to Python 3.3

      * Porting Python code

      * Porting C code

      * Building C extensions

      * Command Line Switch Changes

  * What’s New In Python 3.2

    * PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI

    * PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module

    * PEP 391:  Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

    * PEP 3148:  The "concurrent.futures" module

    * PEP 3147:  PYC Repository Directories

    * PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files

    * PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

    * Other Language Changes

    * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

      * email

      * elementtree

      * functools

      * itertools

      * collections

      * threading

      * datetime and time

      * math

      * abc

      * io

      * reprlib

      * logging

      * csv

      * contextlib

      * decimal and fractions

      * ftp

      * popen

      * select

      * gzip and zipfile

      * tarfile

      * hashlib

      * ast

      * os

      * shutil

      * sqlite3

      * html

      * socket

      * ssl

      * nntp

      * certificates

      * imaplib

      * http.client

      * unittest

      * random

      * poplib

      * asyncore

      * tempfile

      * inspect

      * pydoc

      * dis

      * dbm

      * ctypes

      * site

      * sysconfig

      * pdb

      * configparser

      * urllib.parse

      * mailbox

      * turtledemo

    * Multi-threading

    * Optimizations

    * Unicode

    * Codecs

    * Documentation

    * IDLE

    * Code Repository

    * Build and C API Changes

    * Porting to Python 3.2

  * What’s New In Python 3.1

    * PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries

    * PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

    * Other Language Changes

    * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

    * Optimizations

    * IDLE

    * Build and C API Changes

    * Porting to Python 3.1

  * What’s New In Python 3.0

    * Common Stumbling Blocks

      * Print Is A Function

      * Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists

      * Ordering Comparisons

      * Integers

      * Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit

    * Overview Of Syntax Changes

      * New Syntax

      * Changed Syntax

      * Removed Syntax

    * Changes Already Present In Python 2.6

    * Library Changes

    * **PEP 3101**: A New Approach To String Formatting

    * Changes To Exceptions

    * Miscellaneous Other Changes

      * Operators And Special Methods

      * Builtins

    * Build and C API Changes

    * Performance

    * Porting To Python 3.0

  * What’s New in Python 2.7

    * The Future for Python 2.x

    * Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings

    * Python 3.1 Features

    * PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections

    * PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

    * PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines

    * PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

    * PEP 3106: Dictionary Views

    * PEP 3137: The memoryview Object

    * Other Language Changes

      * Interpreter Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New and Improved Modules

      * New module: importlib

      * New module: sysconfig

      * ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk

      * Updated module: unittest

      * Updated module: ElementTree 1.3

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Capsules

      * Port-Specific Changes: Windows

      * Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

      * Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Porting to Python 2.7

    * New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

      * PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches

      * PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.6

    * Python 3.0

    * Changes to the Development Process

      * New Issue Tracker: Roundup

      * New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx

    * PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

      * Writing Context Managers

      * The contextlib module

    * PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module

    * PEP 370: Per-user "site-packages" Directory

    * PEP 371: The "multiprocessing" Package

    * PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting

    * PEP 3105: "print" As a Function

    * PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes

    * PEP 3112: Byte Literals

    * PEP 3116: New I/O Library

    * PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol

    * PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes

    * PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax

    * PEP 3129: Class Decorators

    * PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

      * The "fractions" Module

    * Other Language Changes

      * Optimizations

      * Interpreter Changes

    * New and Improved Modules

      * The "ast" module

      * The "future_builtins" module

      * The "json" module: JavaScript Object Notation

      * The "plistlib" module: A Property-List Parser

      * ctypes Enhancements

      * Improved SSL Support

    * Deprecations and Removals

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes: Windows

      * Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

      * Port-Specific Changes: IRIX

    * Porting to Python 2.6

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.5

    * PEP 308: Conditional Expressions

    * PEP 309: Partial Function Application

    * PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

    * PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports

    * PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts

    * PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally

    * PEP 342: New Generator Features

    * PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

      * Writing Context Managers

      * The contextlib module

    * PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes

    * PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type

    * PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method

    * Other Language Changes

      * Interactive Interpreter Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New, Improved, and Removed Modules

      * The ctypes package

      * The ElementTree package

      * The hashlib package

      * The sqlite3 package

      * The wsgiref package

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes

    * Porting to Python 2.5

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.4

    * PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects

    * PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

    * PEP 289: Generator Expressions

    * PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions

    * PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods

    * PEP 322: Reverse Iteration

    * PEP 324: New subprocess Module

    * PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

      * Why is Decimal needed?

      * The "Decimal" type

      * The "Context" type

    * PEP 328: Multi-line Imports

    * PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

    * Other Language Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

      * cookielib

      * doctest

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes

    * Porting to Python 2.4

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.3

    * PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype

    * PEP 255: Simple Generators

    * PEP 263: Source Code Encodings

    * PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives

    * PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT

    * PEP 278: Universal Newline Support

    * PEP 279: enumerate()

    * PEP 282: The logging Package

    * PEP 285: A Boolean Type

    * PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks

    * PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

    * PEP 302: New Import Hooks

    * PEP 305: Comma-separated Files

    * PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements

    * Extended Slices

    * Other Language Changes

      * String Changes

      * Optimizations

    * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

      * Date/Time Type

      * The optparse Module

    * Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator

    * Build and C API Changes

      * Port-Specific Changes

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Porting to Python 2.3

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.2

    * Introduction

    * PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes

      * Old and New Classes

      * Descriptors

      * Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule

      * Attribute Access

      * Related Links

    * PEP 234: Iterators

    * PEP 255: Simple Generators

    * PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

    * PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator

    * Unicode Changes

    * PEP 227: Nested Scopes

    * New and Improved Modules

    * Interpreter Changes and Fixes

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.1

    * Introduction

    * PEP 227: Nested Scopes

    * PEP 236: __future__ Directives

    * PEP 207: Rich Comparisons

    * PEP 230: Warning Framework

    * PEP 229: New Build System

    * PEP 205: Weak References

    * PEP 232: Function Attributes

    * PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms

    * PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook

    * PEP 208: New Coercion Model

    * PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages

    * New and Improved Modules

    * Other Changes and Fixes

    * Acknowledgements

  * What’s New in Python 2.0

    * Introduction

    * What About Python 1.6?

    * New Development Process

    * Unicode

    * List Comprehensions

    * Augmented Assignment

    * String Methods

    * Garbage Collection of Cycles

    * Other Core Changes

      * Minor Language Changes

      * Changes to Built-in Functions

    * Porting to 2.0

    * Extending/Embedding Changes

    * Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install

    * XML Modules

      * SAX2 Support

      * DOM Support

      * Relationship to PyXML

    * Module changes

    * New modules

    * IDLE Improvements

    * Deleted and Deprecated Modules

    * Acknowledgements

  * Changelog

    * Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1

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* The Python Tutorial

  * Whetting Your Appetite

  * Using the Python Interpreter

    * Invoking the Interpreter

      * Argument Passing

      * Interactive Mode

    * The Interpreter and Its Environment

      * Source Code Encoding

  * An Informal Introduction to Python

    * Using Python as a Calculator

      * Numbers

      * Strings

      * Lists

    * First Steps Towards Programming

  * More Control Flow Tools

    * "if" Statements

    * "for" Statements

    * The "range()" Function

    * "break" and "continue" Statements, and "else" Clauses on Loops

    * "pass" Statements

    * Defining Functions

    * More on Defining Functions

      * Default Argument Values

      * Keyword Arguments

      * Arbitrary Argument Lists

      * Unpacking Argument Lists

      * Lambda Expressions

      * Documentation Strings

      * Function Annotations

    * Intermezzo: Coding Style

  * Data Structures

    * More on Lists

      * Using Lists as Stacks

      * Using Lists as Queues

      * List Comprehensions

      * Nested List Comprehensions

    * The "del" statement

    * Tuples and Sequences

    * Sets

    * Dictionaries

    * Looping Techniques

    * More on Conditions

    * Comparing Sequences and Other Types

  * Modules

    * More on Modules

      * Executing modules as scripts

      * The Module Search Path

      * “Compiled” Python files

    * Standard Modules

    * The "dir()" Function

    * Packages

      * Importing * From a Package

      * Intra-package References

      * Packages in Multiple Directories

  * Input and Output

    * Fancier Output Formatting

      * Old string formatting

    * Reading and Writing Files

      * Methods of File Objects

      * Saving structured data with "json"

  * Errors and Exceptions

    * Syntax Errors

    * Exceptions

    * Handling Exceptions

    * Raising Exceptions

    * User-defined Exceptions

    * Defining Clean-up Actions

    * Predefined Clean-up Actions

  * Classes

    * A Word About Names and Objects

    * Python Scopes and Namespaces

      * Scopes and Namespaces Example

    * A First Look at Classes

      * Class Definition Syntax

      * Class Objects

      * Instance Objects

      * Method Objects

      * Class and Instance Variables

    * Random Remarks

    * Inheritance

      * Multiple Inheritance

    * Private Variables

    * Odds and Ends

    * Iterators

    * Generators

    * Generator Expressions

  * Brief Tour of the Standard Library

    * Operating System Interface

    * File Wildcards

    * Command Line Arguments

    * Error Output Redirection and Program Termination

    * String Pattern Matching

    * Mathematics

    * Internet Access

    * Dates and Times

    * Data Compression

    * Performance Measurement

    * Quality Control

    * Batteries Included

  * Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II

    * Output Formatting

    * Templating

    * Working with Binary Data Record Layouts

    * Multi-threading

    * Logging

    * Weak References

    * Tools for Working with Lists

    * Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic

  * Virtual Environments and Packages

    * Introduction

    * Creating Virtual Environments

    * Managing Packages with pip

  * What Now?

  * Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution

    * Tab Completion and History Editing

    * Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter

  * Floating Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations

    * Representation Error

  * Appendix

    * Interactive Mode

      * Error Handling

      * Executable Python Scripts

      * The Interactive Startup File

      * The Customization Modules

* Python Setup and Usage

  * Command line and environment

    * Command line

      * Interface options

      * Generic options

      * Miscellaneous options

      * Options you shouldn’t use

    * Environment variables

      * Debug-mode variables

  * Using Python on Unix platforms

    * Getting and installing the latest version of Python

      * On Linux

      * On FreeBSD and OpenBSD

      * On OpenSolaris

    * Building Python

    * Python-related paths and files

    * Miscellaneous

    * Editors and IDEs

  * Using Python on Windows

    * Installing Python

      * Supported Versions

      * Installation Steps

      * Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation

      * Installing Without UI

      * Installing Without Downloading

      * Modifying an install

      * Other Platforms

    * Alternative bundles

    * Configuring Python

      * Excursus: Setting environment variables

      * Finding the Python executable

    * Python Launcher for Windows

      * Getting started

        * From the command-line

        * Virtual environments

        * From a script

        * From file associations

      * Shebang Lines

      * Arguments in shebang lines

      * Customization

        * Customization via INI files

        * Customizing default Python versions

      * Diagnostics

    * Finding modules

    * Additional modules

      * PyWin32

      * cx_Freeze

      * WConio

    * Compiling Python on Windows

    * Embedded Distribution

      * Python Application

      * Embedding Python

    * Other resources

  * Using Python on a Macintosh

    * Getting and Installing MacPython

      * How to run a Python script

      * Running scripts with a GUI

      * Configuration

    * The IDE

    * Installing Additional Python Packages

    * GUI Programming on the Mac

    * Distributing Python Applications on the Mac

    * Other Resources

* The Python Language Reference

  * Introduction

    * Alternate Implementations

    * Notation

  * Lexical analysis

    * Line structure

      * Logical lines

      * Physical lines

      * Comments

      * Encoding declarations

      * Explicit line joining

      * Implicit line joining

      * Blank lines

      * Indentation

      * Whitespace between tokens

    * Other tokens

    * Identifiers and keywords

      * Keywords

      * Reserved classes of identifiers

    * Literals

      * String and Bytes literals

      * String literal concatenation

      * Formatted string literals

      * Numeric literals

      * Integer literals

      * Floating point literals

      * Imaginary literals

    * Operators

    * Delimiters

  * Data model

    * Objects, values and types

    * The standard type hierarchy

    * Special method names

      * Basic customization

      * Customizing attribute access

        * Implementing Descriptors

        * Invoking Descriptors

        * __slots__

          * Notes on using *__slots__*

      * Customizing class creation

        * Metaclasses

        * Determining the appropriate metaclass

        * Preparing the class namespace

        * Executing the class body

        * Creating the class object

        * Metaclass example

      * Customizing instance and subclass checks

      * Emulating callable objects

      * Emulating container types

      * Emulating numeric types

      * With Statement Context Managers

      * Special method lookup

    * Coroutines

      * Awaitable Objects

      * Coroutine Objects

      * Asynchronous Iterators

      * Asynchronous Context Managers

  * Execution model

    * Structure of a program

    * Naming and binding

      * Binding of names

      * Resolution of names

      * Builtins and restricted execution

      * Interaction with dynamic features

    * Exceptions

  * The import system

    * "importlib"

    * Packages

      * Regular packages

      * Namespace packages

    * Searching

      * The module cache

      * Finders and loaders

      * Import hooks

      * The meta path

    * Loading

      * Loaders

      * Submodules

      * Module spec

      * Import-related module attributes

      * module.__path__

      * Module reprs

    * The Path Based Finder

      * Path entry finders

      * Path entry finder protocol

    * Replacing the standard import system

    * Special considerations for __main__

      * __main__.__spec__

    * Open issues

    * References

  * Expressions

    * Arithmetic conversions

    * Atoms

      * Identifiers (Names)

      * Literals

      * Parenthesized forms

      * Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries

      * List displays

      * Set displays

      * Dictionary displays

      * Generator expressions

      * Yield expressions

        * Generator-iterator methods

        * Examples

        * Asynchronous generator functions

        * Asynchronous generator-iterator methods

    * Primaries

      * Attribute references

      * Subscriptions

      * Slicings

      * Calls

    * Await expression

    * The power operator

    * Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations

    * Binary arithmetic operations

    * Shifting operations

    * Binary bitwise operations

    * Comparisons

      * Value comparisons

      * Membership test operations

      * Identity comparisons

    * Boolean operations

    * Conditional expressions

    * Lambdas

    * Expression lists

    * Evaluation order

    * Operator precedence

  * Simple statements

    * Expression statements

    * Assignment statements

      * Augmented assignment statements

      * Annotated assignment statements

    * The "assert" statement

    * The "pass" statement

    * The "del" statement

    * The "return" statement

    * The "yield" statement

    * The "raise" statement

    * The "break" statement

    * The "continue" statement

    * The "import" statement

      * Future statements

    * The "global" statement

    * The "nonlocal" statement

  * Compound statements

    * The "if" statement

    * The "while" statement

    * The "for" statement

    * The "try" statement

    * The "with" statement

    * Function definitions

    * Class definitions

    * Coroutines

      * Coroutine function definition

      * The "async for" statement

      * The "async with" statement

  * Top-level components

    * Complete Python programs

    * File input

    * Interactive input

    * Expression input

  * Full Grammar specification

* The Python Standard Library

  * Introduction

  * Built-in Functions

  * Built-in Constants

    * Constants added by the "site" module

  * Built-in Types

    * Truth Value Testing

    * Boolean Operations — "and", "or", "not"

    * Comparisons

    * Numeric Types — "int", "float", "complex"

      * Bitwise Operations on Integer Types

      * Additional Methods on Integer Types

      * Additional Methods on Float

      * Hashing of numeric types

    * Iterator Types

      * Generator Types

    * Sequence Types — "list", "tuple", "range"

      * Common Sequence Operations

      * Immutable Sequence Types

      * Mutable Sequence Types

      * Lists

      * Tuples

      * Ranges

    * Text Sequence Type — "str"

      * String Methods

      * "printf"-style String Formatting

    * Binary Sequence Types — "bytes", "bytearray", "memoryview"

      * Bytes Objects

      * Bytearray Objects

      * Bytes and Bytearray Operations

      * "printf"-style Bytes Formatting

      * Memory Views

    * Set Types — "set", "frozenset"

    * Mapping Types — "dict"

      * Dictionary view objects

    * Context Manager Types

    * Other Built-in Types

      * Modules

      * Classes and Class Instances

      * Functions

      * Methods

      * Code Objects

      * Type Objects

      * The Null Object

      * The Ellipsis Object

      * The NotImplemented Object

      * Boolean Values

      * Internal Objects

    * Special Attributes

  * Built-in Exceptions

    * Base classes

    * Concrete exceptions

      * OS exceptions

    * Warnings

    * Exception hierarchy

  * Text Processing Services

    * "string" — Common string operations

      * String constants

      * Custom String Formatting

      * Format String Syntax

        * Format Specification Mini-Language

        * Format examples

      * Template strings

      * Helper functions

    * "re" — Regular expression operations

      * Regular Expression Syntax

      * Module Contents

      * Regular Expression Objects

      * Match Objects

      * Regular Expression Examples

        * Checking for a Pair

        * Simulating scanf()

        * search() vs. match()

        * Making a Phonebook

        * Text Munging

        * Finding all Adverbs

        * Finding all Adverbs and their Positions

        * Raw String Notation

        * Writing a Tokenizer

    * "difflib" — Helpers for computing deltas

      * SequenceMatcher Objects

      * SequenceMatcher Examples

      * Differ Objects

      * Differ Example

      * A command-line interface to difflib

    * "textwrap" — Text wrapping and filling

    * "unicodedata" — Unicode Database

    * "stringprep" — Internet String Preparation

    * "readline" — GNU readline interface

      * Init file

      * Line buffer

      * History file

      * History list

      * Startup hooks

      * Completion

      * Example

    * "rlcompleter" — Completion function for GNU readline

      * Completer Objects

  * Binary Data Services

    * "struct" — Interpret bytes as packed binary data

      * Functions and Exceptions

      * Format Strings

        * Byte Order, Size, and Alignment

        * Format Characters

        * Examples

      * Classes

    * "codecs" — Codec registry and base classes

      * Codec Base Classes

        * Error Handlers

        * Stateless Encoding and Decoding

        * Incremental Encoding and Decoding

          * IncrementalEncoder Objects

          * IncrementalDecoder Objects

        * Stream Encoding and Decoding

          * StreamWriter Objects

          * StreamReader Objects

          * StreamReaderWriter Objects

          * StreamRecoder Objects

      * Encodings and Unicode

      * Standard Encodings

      * Python Specific Encodings

        * Text Encodings

        * Binary Transforms

        * Text Transforms

      * "encodings.idna" — Internationalized Domain Names in
        Applications

      * "encodings.mbcs" — Windows ANSI codepage

      * "encodings.utf_8_sig" — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

  * Data Types

    * "datetime" — Basic date and time types

      * Available Types

      * "timedelta" Objects

      * "date" Objects

      * "datetime" Objects

      * "time" Objects

      * "tzinfo" Objects

      * "timezone" Objects

      * "strftime()" and "strptime()" Behavior

    * "calendar" — General calendar-related functions

    * "collections" — Container datatypes

      * "ChainMap" objects

        * "ChainMap" Examples and Recipes

      * "Counter" objects

      * "deque" objects

        * "deque" Recipes

      * "defaultdict" objects

        * "defaultdict" Examples

      * "namedtuple()" Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields

      * "OrderedDict" objects

        * "OrderedDict" Examples and Recipes

      * "UserDict" objects

      * "UserList" objects

      * "UserString" objects

    * "collections.abc" — Abstract Base Classes for Containers

      * Collections Abstract Base Classes

    * "heapq" — Heap queue algorithm

      * Basic Examples

      * Priority Queue Implementation Notes

      * Theory

    * "bisect" — Array bisection algorithm

      * Searching Sorted Lists

      * Other Examples

    * "array" — Efficient arrays of numeric values

    * "weakref" — Weak references

      * Weak Reference Objects

      * Example

      * Finalizer Objects

      * Comparing finalizers with "__del__()" methods

    * "types" — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

      * Dynamic Type Creation

      * Standard Interpreter Types

      * Additional Utility Classes and Functions

      * Coroutine Utility Functions

    * "copy" — Shallow and deep copy operations

    * "pprint" — Data pretty printer

      * PrettyPrinter Objects

      * Example

    * "reprlib" — Alternate "repr()" implementation

      * Repr Objects

      * Subclassing Repr Objects

    * "enum" — Support for enumerations

      * Module Contents

      * Creating an Enum

      * Programmatic access to enumeration members and their
        attributes

      * Duplicating enum members and values

      * Ensuring unique enumeration values

      * Using automatic values

      * Iteration

      * Comparisons

      * Allowed members and attributes of enumerations

      * Restricted subclassing of enumerations

      * Pickling

      * Functional API

      * Derived Enumerations

        * IntEnum

        * IntFlag

        * Flag

        * Others

      * Interesting examples

        * Omitting values

          * Using "auto"

          * Using "object"

          * Using a descriptive string

          * Using a custom "__new__()"

        * OrderedEnum

        * DuplicateFreeEnum

        * Planet

      * How are Enums different?

        * Enum Classes

        * Enum Members (aka instances)

        * Finer Points

          * Supported "__dunder__" names

          * Supported "_sunder_" names

          * "Enum" member type

          * Boolean value of "Enum" classes and members

          * "Enum" classes with methods

          * Combining members of "Flag"

  * Numeric and Mathematical Modules

    * "numbers" — Numeric abstract base classes

      * The numeric tower

      * Notes for type implementors

        * Adding More Numeric ABCs

        * Implementing the arithmetic operations

    * "math" — Mathematical functions

      * Number-theoretic and representation functions

      * Power and logarithmic functions

      * Trigonometric functions

      * Angular conversion

      * Hyperbolic functions

      * Special functions

      * Constants

    * "cmath" — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

      * Conversions to and from polar coordinates

      * Power and logarithmic functions

      * Trigonometric functions

      * Hyperbolic functions

      * Classification functions

      * Constants

    * "decimal" — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic

      * Quick-start Tutorial

      * Decimal objects

        * Logical operands

      * Context objects

      * Constants

      * Rounding modes

      * Signals

      * Floating Point Notes

        * Mitigating round-off error with increased precision

        * Special values

      * Working with threads

      * Recipes

      * Decimal FAQ

    * "fractions" — Rational numbers

    * "random" — Generate pseudo-random numbers

      * Bookkeeping functions

      * Functions for integers

      * Functions for sequences

      * Real-valued distributions

      * Alternative Generator

      * Notes on Reproducibility

      * Examples and Recipes

    * "statistics" — Mathematical statistics functions

      * Averages and measures of central location

      * Measures of spread

      * Function details

      * Exceptions

  * Functional Programming Modules

    * "itertools" — Functions creating iterators for efficient
      looping

      * Itertool functions

      * Itertools Recipes

    * "functools" — Higher-order functions and operations on
      callable objects

      * "partial" Objects

    * "operator" — Standard operators as functions

      * Mapping Operators to Functions

      * Inplace Operators

  * File and Directory Access

    * "pathlib" — Object-oriented filesystem paths

      * Basic use

      * Pure paths

        * General properties

        * Operators

        * Accessing individual parts

        * Methods and properties

      * Concrete paths

        * Methods

    * "os.path" — Common pathname manipulations

    * "fileinput" — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams

    * "stat" — Interpreting "stat()" results

    * "filecmp" — File and Directory Comparisons

      * The "dircmp" class

    * "tempfile" — Generate temporary files and directories

      * Examples

      * Deprecated functions and variables

    * "glob" — Unix style pathname pattern expansion

    * "fnmatch" — Unix filename pattern matching

    * "linecache" — Random access to text lines

    * "shutil" — High-level file operations

      * Directory and files operations

        * copytree example

        * rmtree example

      * Archiving operations

        * Archiving example

      * Querying the size of the output terminal

    * "macpath" — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions

  * Data Persistence

    * "pickle" — Python object serialization

      * Relationship to other Python modules

        * Comparison with "marshal"

        * Comparison with "json"

      * Data stream format

      * Module Interface

      * What can be pickled and unpickled?

      * Pickling Class Instances

        * Persistence of External Objects

        * Dispatch Tables

        * Handling Stateful Objects

      * Restricting Globals

      * Performance

      * Examples

    * "copyreg" — Register "pickle" support functions

      * Example

    * "shelve" — Python object persistence

      * Restrictions

      * Example

    * "marshal" — Internal Python object serialization

    * "dbm" — Interfaces to Unix “databases”

      * "dbm.gnu" — GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm

      * "dbm.ndbm" — Interface based on ndbm

      * "dbm.dumb" — Portable DBM implementation

    * "sqlite3" — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

      * Module functions and constants

      * Connection Objects

      * Cursor Objects

      * Row Objects

      * Exceptions

      * SQLite and Python types

        * Introduction

        * Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite
          databases

          * Letting your object adapt itself

          * Registering an adapter callable

        * Converting SQLite values to custom Python types

        * Default adapters and converters

      * Controlling Transactions

      * Using "sqlite3" efficiently

        * Using shortcut methods

        * Accessing columns by name instead of by index

        * Using the connection as a context manager

      * Common issues

        * Multithreading

  * Data Compression and Archiving

    * "zlib" — Compression compatible with **gzip**

    * "gzip" — Support for **gzip** files

      * Examples of usage

    * "bz2" — Support for **bzip2** compression

      * (De)compression of files

      * Incremental (de)compression

      * One-shot (de)compression

    * "lzma" — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

      * Reading and writing compressed files

      * Compressing and decompressing data in memory

      * Miscellaneous

      * Specifying custom filter chains

      * Examples

    * "zipfile" — Work with ZIP archives

      * ZipFile Objects

      * PyZipFile Objects

      * ZipInfo Objects

      * Command-Line Interface

        * Command-line options

    * "tarfile" — Read and write tar archive files

      * TarFile Objects

      * TarInfo Objects

      * Command-Line Interface

        * Command-line options

      * Examples

      * Supported tar formats

      * Unicode issues

  * File Formats

    * "csv" — CSV File Reading and Writing

      * Module Contents

      * Dialects and Formatting Parameters

      * Reader Objects

      * Writer Objects

      * Examples

    * "configparser" — Configuration file parser

      * Quick Start

      * Supported Datatypes

      * Fallback Values

      * Supported INI File Structure

      * Interpolation of values

      * Mapping Protocol Access

      * Customizing Parser Behaviour

      * Legacy API Examples

      * ConfigParser Objects

      * RawConfigParser Objects

      * Exceptions

    * "netrc" — netrc file processing

      * netrc Objects

    * "xdrlib" — Encode and decode XDR data

      * Packer Objects

      * Unpacker Objects

      * Exceptions

    * "plistlib" — Generate and parse Mac OS X ".plist" files

      * Examples

  * Cryptographic Services

    * "hashlib" — Secure hashes and message digests

      * Hash algorithms

      * SHAKE variable length digests

      * Key derivation

      * BLAKE2

        * Creating hash objects

        * Constants

        * Examples

          * Simple hashing

          * Using different digest sizes

          * Keyed hashing

          * Randomized hashing

          * Personalization

          * Tree mode

        * Credits

    * "hmac" — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication

    * "secrets" — Generate secure random numbers for managing
      secrets

      * Random numbers

      * Generating tokens

        * How many bytes should tokens use?

      * Other functions

      * Recipes and best practices

  * Generic Operating System Services

    * "os" — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

      * File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment
        Variables

      * Process Parameters

      * File Object Creation

      * File Descriptor Operations

        * Querying the size of a terminal

        * Inheritance of File Descriptors

      * Files and Directories

        * Linux extended attributes

      * Process Management

      * Interface to the scheduler

      * Miscellaneous System Information

      * Random numbers

    * "io" — Core tools for working with streams

      * Overview

        * Text I/O

        * Binary I/O

        * Raw I/O

      * High-level Module Interface

        * In-memory streams

      * Class hierarchy

        * I/O Base Classes

        * Raw File I/O

        * Buffered Streams

        * Text I/O

      * Performance

        * Binary I/O

        * Text I/O

        * Multi-threading

        * Reentrancy

    * "time" — Time access and conversions

      * Functions

      * Clock ID Constants

      * Timezone Constants

    * "argparse" — Parser for command-line options, arguments and
      sub- commands

      * Example

        * Creating a parser

        * Adding arguments

        * Parsing arguments

      * ArgumentParser objects

        * prog

        * usage

        * description

        * epilog

        * parents

        * formatter_class

        * prefix_chars

        * fromfile_prefix_chars

        * argument_default

        * allow_abbrev

        * conflict_handler

        * add_help

      * The add_argument() method

        * name or flags

        * action

        * nargs

        * const

        * default

        * type

        * choices

        * required

        * help

        * metavar

        * dest

        * Action classes

      * The parse_args() method

        * Option value syntax

        * Invalid arguments

        * Arguments containing "-"

        * Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)

        * Beyond "sys.argv"

        * The Namespace object

      * Other utilities

        * Sub-commands

        * FileType objects

        * Argument groups

        * Mutual exclusion

        * Parser defaults

        * Printing help

        * Partial parsing

        * Customizing file parsing

        * Exiting methods

      * Upgrading optparse code

    * "getopt" — C-style parser for command line options

    * "logging" — Logging facility for Python

      * Logger Objects

      * Logging Levels

      * Handler Objects

      * Formatter Objects

      * Filter Objects

      * LogRecord Objects

      * LogRecord attributes

      * LoggerAdapter Objects

      * Thread Safety

      * Module-Level Functions

      * Module-Level Attributes

      * Integration with the warnings module

    * "logging.config" — Logging configuration

      * Configuration functions

      * Configuration dictionary schema

        * Dictionary Schema Details

        * Incremental Configuration

        * Object connections

        * User-defined objects

        * Access to external objects

        * Access to internal objects

        * Import resolution and custom importers

      * Configuration file format

    * "logging.handlers" — Logging handlers

      * StreamHandler

      * FileHandler

      * NullHandler

      * WatchedFileHandler

      * BaseRotatingHandler

      * RotatingFileHandler

      * TimedRotatingFileHandler

      * SocketHandler

      * DatagramHandler

      * SysLogHandler

      * NTEventLogHandler

      * SMTPHandler

      * MemoryHandler

      * HTTPHandler

      * QueueHandler

      * QueueListener

    * "getpass" — Portable password input

    * "curses" — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

      * Functions

      * Window Objects

      * Constants

    * "curses.textpad" — Text input widget for curses programs

      * Textbox objects

    * "curses.ascii" — Utilities for ASCII characters

    * "curses.panel" — A panel stack extension for curses

      * Functions

      * Panel Objects

    * "platform" —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

      * Cross Platform

      * Java Platform

      * Windows Platform

        * Win95/98 specific

      * Mac OS Platform

      * Unix Platforms

    * "errno" — Standard errno system symbols

    * "ctypes" — A foreign function library for Python

      * ctypes tutorial

        * Loading dynamic link libraries

        * Accessing functions from loaded dlls

        * Calling functions

        * Fundamental data types

        * Calling functions, continued

        * Calling functions with your own custom data types

        * Specifying the required argument types (function
          prototypes)

        * Return types

        * Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)

        * Structures and unions

        * Structure/union alignment and byte order

        * Bit fields in structures and unions

        * Arrays

        * Pointers

        * Type conversions

        * Incomplete Types

        * Callback functions

        * Accessing values exported from dlls

        * Surprises

        * Variable-sized data types

      * ctypes reference

        * Finding shared libraries

        * Loading shared libraries

        * Foreign functions

        * Function prototypes

        * Utility functions

        * Data types

        * Fundamental data types

        * Structured data types

        * Arrays and pointers

  * Concurrent Execution

    * "threading" — Thread-based parallelism

      * Thread-Local Data

      * Thread Objects

      * Lock Objects

      * RLock Objects

      * Condition Objects

      * Semaphore Objects

        * "Semaphore" Example

      * Event Objects

      * Timer Objects

      * Barrier Objects

      * Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the "with"
        statement

    * "multiprocessing" — Process-based parallelism

      * Introduction

        * The "Process" class

        * Contexts and start methods

        * Exchanging objects between processes

        * Synchronization between processes

        * Sharing state between processes

        * Using a pool of workers

      * Reference

        * "Process" and exceptions

        * Pipes and Queues

        * Miscellaneous

        * Connection Objects

        * Synchronization primitives

        * Shared "ctypes" Objects

          * The "multiprocessing.sharedctypes" module

        * Managers

          * Customized managers

          * Using a remote manager

        * Proxy Objects

          * Cleanup

        * Process Pools

        * Listeners and Clients

          * Address Formats

        * Authentication keys

        * Logging

        * The "multiprocessing.dummy" module

      * Programming guidelines

        * All start methods

        * The *spawn* and *forkserver* start methods

      * Examples

    * The "concurrent" package

    * "concurrent.futures" — Launching parallel tasks

      * Executor Objects

      * ThreadPoolExecutor

        * ThreadPoolExecutor Example

      * ProcessPoolExecutor

        * ProcessPoolExecutor Example

      * Future Objects

      * Module Functions

      * Exception classes

    * "subprocess" — Subprocess management

      * Using the "subprocess" Module

        * Frequently Used Arguments

        * Popen Constructor

        * Exceptions

      * Security Considerations

      * Popen Objects

      * Windows Popen Helpers

        * Constants

      * Older high-level API

      * Replacing Older Functions with the "subprocess" Module

        * Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote

        * Replacing shell pipeline

        * Replacing "os.system()"

        * Replacing the "os.spawn" family

        * Replacing "os.popen()", "os.popen2()", "os.popen3()"

        * Replacing functions from the "popen2" module

      * Legacy Shell Invocation Functions

      * Notes

        * Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows

    * "sched" — Event scheduler

      * Scheduler Objects

    * "queue" — A synchronized queue class

      * Queue Objects

    * "dummy_threading" — Drop-in replacement for the "threading"
      module

    * "_thread" — Low-level threading API

    * "_dummy_thread" — Drop-in replacement for the "_thread" module

  * Interprocess Communication and Networking

    * "socket" — Low-level networking interface

      * Socket families

      * Module contents

        * Exceptions

        * Constants

        * Functions

          * Creating sockets

          * Other functions

      * Socket Objects

      * Notes on socket timeouts

        * Timeouts and the "connect" method

        * Timeouts and the "accept" method

      * Example

    * "ssl" — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

      * Functions, Constants, and Exceptions

        * Socket creation

        * Context creation

        * Random generation

        * Certificate handling

        * Constants

      * SSL Sockets

      * SSL Contexts

      * Certificates

        * Certificate chains

        * CA certificates

        * Combined key and certificate

        * Self-signed certificates

      * Examples

        * Testing for SSL support

        * Client-side operation

        * Server-side operation

      * Notes on non-blocking sockets

      * Memory BIO Support

      * SSL session

      * Security considerations

        * Best defaults

        * Manual settings

          * Verifying certificates

          * Protocol versions

          * Cipher selection

        * Multi-processing

    * "select" — Waiting for I/O completion

      * "/dev/poll" Polling Objects

      * Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects

      * Polling Objects

      * Kqueue Objects

      * Kevent Objects

    * "selectors" — High-level I/O multiplexing

      * Introduction

      * Classes

      * Examples

    * "asyncio" — Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks

      * Base Event Loop

        * Run an event loop

        * Calls

        * Delayed calls

        * Futures

        * Tasks

        * Creating connections

        * Creating listening connections

        * Watch file descriptors

        * Low-level socket operations

        * Resolve host name

        * Connect pipes

        * UNIX signals

        * Executor

        * Error Handling API

        * Debug mode

        * Server

        * Handle

        * Event loop examples

          * Hello World with call_soon()

          * Display the current date with call_later()

          * Watch a file descriptor for read events

          * Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM

      * Event loops

        * Event loop functions

        * Available event loops

        * Platform support

          * Windows

          * Mac OS X

        * Event loop policies and the default policy

        * Event loop policy interface

        * Access to the global loop policy

        * Customizing the event loop policy

      * Tasks and coroutines

        * Coroutines

          * Example: Hello World coroutine

          * Example: Coroutine displaying the current date

          * Example: Chain coroutines

        * InvalidStateError

        * TimeoutError

        * Future

          * Example: Future with run_until_complete()

          * Example: Future with run_forever()

        * Task

          * Example: Parallel execution of tasks

        * Task functions

      * Transports and protocols (callback based API)

        * Transports

          * BaseTransport

          * ReadTransport

          * WriteTransport

          * DatagramTransport

          * BaseSubprocessTransport

        * Protocols

          * Protocol classes

          * Connection callbacks

          * Streaming protocols

          * Datagram protocols

          * Flow control callbacks

          * Coroutines and protocols

        * Protocol examples

          * TCP echo client protocol

          * TCP echo server protocol

          * UDP echo client protocol

          * UDP echo server protocol

          * Register an open socket to wait for data using a
            protocol

      * Streams (coroutine based API)

        * Stream functions

        * StreamReader

        * StreamWriter

        * StreamReaderProtocol

        * IncompleteReadError

        * LimitOverrunError

        * Stream examples

          * TCP echo client using streams

          * TCP echo server using streams

          * Get HTTP headers

          * Register an open socket to wait for data using streams

      * Subprocess

        * Windows event loop

        * Create a subprocess: high-level API using Process

        * Create a subprocess: low-level API using subprocess.Popen

        * Constants

        * Process

        * Subprocess and threads

        * Subprocess examples

          * Subprocess using transport and protocol

          * Subprocess using streams

      * Synchronization primitives

        * Locks

          * Lock

          * Event

          * Condition

        * Semaphores

          * Semaphore

          * BoundedSemaphore

      * Queues

        * Queue

        * PriorityQueue

        * LifoQueue

          * Exceptions

      * Develop with asyncio

        * Debug mode of asyncio

        * Cancellation

        * Concurrency and multithreading

        * Handle blocking functions correctly

        * Logging

        * Detect coroutine objects never scheduled

        * Detect exceptions never consumed

        * Chain coroutines correctly

        * Pending task destroyed

        * Close transports and event loops

    * "asyncore" — Asynchronous socket handler

      * asyncore Example basic HTTP client

      * asyncore Example basic echo server

    * "asynchat" — Asynchronous socket command/response handler

      * asynchat Example

    * "signal" — Set handlers for asynchronous events

      * General rules

        * Execution of Python signal handlers

        * Signals and threads

      * Module contents

      * Example

    * "mmap" — Memory-mapped file support

  * Internet Data Handling

    * "email" — An email and MIME handling package

      * "email.message": Representing an email message

      * "email.parser": Parsing email messages

        * FeedParser API

        * Parser API

        * Additional notes

      * "email.generator": Generating MIME documents

      * "email.policy": Policy Objects

      * "email.errors": Exception and Defect classes

      * "email.headerregistry": Custom Header Objects

      * "email.contentmanager": Managing MIME Content

        * Content Manager Instances

      * "email": Examples

      * "email.message.Message": Representing an email message using
        the "compat32" API

      * "email.mime": Creating email and MIME objects from scratch

      * "email.header": Internationalized headers

      * "email.charset": Representing character sets

      * "email.encoders": Encoders

      * "email.utils": Miscellaneous utilities

      * "email.iterators": Iterators

    * "json" — JSON encoder and decoder

      * Basic Usage

      * Encoders and Decoders

      * Exceptions

      * Standard Compliance and Interoperability

        * Character Encodings

        * Infinite and NaN Number Values

        * Repeated Names Within an Object

        * Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values

        * Implementation Limitations

      * Command Line Interface

        * Command line options

    * "mailcap" — Mailcap file handling

    * "mailbox" — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

      * "Mailbox" objects

        * "Maildir"

        * "mbox"

        * "MH"

        * "Babyl"

        * "MMDF"

      * "Message" objects

        * "MaildirMessage"

        * "mboxMessage"

        * "MHMessage"

        * "BabylMessage"

        * "MMDFMessage"

      * Exceptions

      * Examples

    * "mimetypes" — Map filenames to MIME types

      * MimeTypes Objects

    * "base64" — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

    * "binhex" — Encode and decode binhex4 files

      * Notes

    * "binascii" — Convert between binary and ASCII

    * "quopri" — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

    * "uu" — Encode and decode uuencode files

  * Structured Markup Processing Tools

    * "html" — HyperText Markup Language support

    * "html.parser" — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

      * Example HTML Parser Application

      * "HTMLParser" Methods

      * Examples

    * "html.entities" — Definitions of HTML general entities

    * XML Processing Modules

      * XML vulnerabilities

      * The "defusedxml" and "defusedexpat" Packages

    * "xml.etree.ElementTree" — The ElementTree XML API

      * Tutorial

        * XML tree and elements

        * Parsing XML

        * Pull API for non-blocking parsing

        * Finding interesting elements

        * Modifying an XML File

        * Building XML documents

        * Parsing XML with Namespaces

        * Additional resources

      * XPath support

        * Example

        * Supported XPath syntax

      * Reference

        * Functions

        * Element Objects

        * ElementTree Objects

        * QName Objects

        * TreeBuilder Objects

        * XMLParser Objects

        * XMLPullParser Objects

        * Exceptions

    * "xml.dom" — The Document Object Model API

      * Module Contents

      * Objects in the DOM

        * DOMImplementation Objects

        * Node Objects

        * NodeList Objects

        * DocumentType Objects

        * Document Objects

        * Element Objects

        * Attr Objects

        * NamedNodeMap Objects

        * Comment Objects

        * Text and CDATASection Objects

        * ProcessingInstruction Objects

        * Exceptions

      * Conformance

        * Type Mapping

        * Accessor Methods

    * "xml.dom.minidom" — Minimal DOM implementation

      * DOM Objects

      * DOM Example

      * minidom and the DOM standard

    * "xml.dom.pulldom" — Support for building partial DOM trees

      * DOMEventStream Objects

    * "xml.sax" — Support for SAX2 parsers

      * SAXException Objects

    * "xml.sax.handler" — Base classes for SAX handlers

      * ContentHandler Objects

      * DTDHandler Objects

      * EntityResolver Objects

      * ErrorHandler Objects

    * "xml.sax.saxutils" — SAX Utilities

    * "xml.sax.xmlreader" — Interface for XML parsers

      * XMLReader Objects

      * IncrementalParser Objects

      * Locator Objects

      * InputSource Objects

      * The "Attributes" Interface

      * The "AttributesNS" Interface

    * "xml.parsers.expat" — Fast XML parsing using Expat

      * XMLParser Objects

      * ExpatError Exceptions

      * Example

      * Content Model Descriptions

      * Expat error constants

  * Internet Protocols and Support

    * "webbrowser" — Convenient Web-browser controller

      * Browser Controller Objects

    * "cgi" — Common Gateway Interface support

      * Introduction

      * Using the cgi module

      * Higher Level Interface

      * Functions

      * Caring about security

      * Installing your CGI script on a Unix system

      * Testing your CGI script

      * Debugging CGI scripts

      * Common problems and solutions

    * "cgitb" — Traceback manager for CGI scripts

    * "wsgiref" — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

      * "wsgiref.util" – WSGI environment utilities

      * "wsgiref.headers" – WSGI response header tools

      * "wsgiref.simple_server" – a simple WSGI HTTP server

      * "wsgiref.validate" — WSGI conformance checker

      * "wsgiref.handlers" – server/gateway base classes

      * Examples

    * "urllib" — URL handling modules

    * "urllib.request" — Extensible library for opening URLs

      * Request Objects

      * OpenerDirector Objects

      * BaseHandler Objects

      * HTTPRedirectHandler Objects

      * HTTPCookieProcessor Objects

      * ProxyHandler Objects

      * HTTPPasswordMgr Objects

      * HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects

      * AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects

      * HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects

      * ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects

      * AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects

      * HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects

      * ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects

      * HTTPHandler Objects

      * HTTPSHandler Objects

      * FileHandler Objects

      * DataHandler Objects

      * FTPHandler Objects

      * CacheFTPHandler Objects

      * UnknownHandler Objects

      * HTTPErrorProcessor Objects

      * Examples

      * Legacy interface

      * "urllib.request" Restrictions

    * "urllib.response" — Response classes used by urllib

    * "urllib.parse" — Parse URLs into components

      * URL Parsing

      * Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes

      * Structured Parse Results

      * URL Quoting

    * "urllib.error" — Exception classes raised by urllib.request

    * "urllib.robotparser" —  Parser for robots.txt

    * "http" — HTTP modules

      * HTTP status codes

    * "http.client" — HTTP protocol client

      * HTTPConnection Objects

      * HTTPResponse Objects

      * Examples

      * HTTPMessage Objects

    * "ftplib" — FTP protocol client

      * FTP Objects

      * FTP_TLS Objects

    * "poplib" — POP3 protocol client

      * POP3 Objects

      * POP3 Example

    * "imaplib" — IMAP4 protocol client

      * IMAP4 Objects

      * IMAP4 Example

    * "nntplib" — NNTP protocol client

      * NNTP Objects

        * Attributes

        * Methods

      * Utility functions

    * "smtplib" — SMTP protocol client

      * SMTP Objects

      * SMTP Example

    * "smtpd" — SMTP Server

      * SMTPServer Objects

      * DebuggingServer Objects

      * PureProxy Objects

      * MailmanProxy Objects

      * SMTPChannel Objects

    * "telnetlib" — Telnet client

      * Telnet Objects

      * Telnet Example

    * "uuid" — UUID objects according to RFC 4122

      * Example

    * "socketserver" — A framework for network servers

      * Server Creation Notes

      * Server Objects

      * Request Handler Objects

      * Examples

        * "socketserver.TCPServer" Example

        * "socketserver.UDPServer" Example

        * Asynchronous Mixins

    * "http.server" — HTTP servers

    * "http.cookies" — HTTP state management

      * Cookie Objects

      * Morsel Objects

      * Example

    * "http.cookiejar" — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

      * CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects

      * FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers

      * CookiePolicy Objects

      * DefaultCookiePolicy Objects

      * Cookie Objects

      * Examples

    * "xmlrpc" — XMLRPC server and client modules

    * "xmlrpc.client" — XML-RPC client access

      * ServerProxy Objects

      * DateTime Objects

      * Binary Objects

      * Fault Objects

      * ProtocolError Objects

      * MultiCall Objects

      * Convenience Functions

      * Example of Client Usage

      * Example of Client and Server Usage

    * "xmlrpc.server" — Basic XML-RPC servers

      * SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects

        * SimpleXMLRPCServer Example

      * CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

      * Documenting XMLRPC server

      * DocXMLRPCServer Objects

      * DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

    * "ipaddress" — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

      * Convenience factory functions

      * IP Addresses

        * Address objects

        * Conversion to Strings and Integers

        * Operators

          * Comparison operators

          * Arithmetic operators

      * IP Network definitions

        * Prefix, net mask and host mask

        * Network objects

        * Operators

          * Logical operators

          * Iteration

          * Networks as containers of addresses

      * Interface objects

      * Other Module Level Functions

      * Custom Exceptions

  * Multimedia Services

    * "audioop" — Manipulate raw audio data

    * "aifc" — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files

    * "sunau" — Read and write Sun AU files

      * AU_read Objects

      * AU_write Objects

    * "wave" — Read and write WAV files

      * Wave_read Objects

      * Wave_write Objects

    * "chunk" — Read IFF chunked data

    * "colorsys" — Conversions between color systems

    * "imghdr" — Determine the type of an image

    * "sndhdr" — Determine type of sound file

    * "ossaudiodev" — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

      * Audio Device Objects

      * Mixer Device Objects

  * Internationalization

    * "gettext" — Multilingual internationalization services

      * GNU **gettext** API

      * Class-based API

        * The "NullTranslations" class

        * The "GNUTranslations" class

        * Solaris message catalog support

        * The Catalog constructor

      * Internationalizing your programs and modules

        * Localizing your module

        * Localizing your application

        * Changing languages on the fly

        * Deferred translations

      * Acknowledgements

    * "locale" — Internationalization services

      * Background, details, hints, tips and caveats

      * For extension writers and programs that embed Python

      * Access to message catalogs

  * Program Frameworks

    * "turtle" — Turtle graphics

      * Introduction

      * Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods

        * Turtle methods

        * Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen

      * Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

        * Turtle motion

        * Tell Turtle’s state

        * Settings for measurement

        * Pen control

          * Drawing state

          * Color control

          * Filling

          * More drawing control

        * Turtle state

          * Visibility

          * Appearance

        * Using events

        * Special Turtle methods

        * Compound shapes

      * Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

        * Window control

        * Animation control

        * Using screen events

        * Input methods

        * Settings and special methods

        * Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from
          TurtleScreen

      * Public classes

      * Help and configuration

        * How to use help

        * Translation of docstrings into different languages

        * How to configure Screen and Turtles

      * "turtledemo" — Demo scripts

      * Changes since Python 2.6

      * Changes since Python 3.0

    * "cmd" — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

      * Cmd Objects

      * Cmd Example

    * "shlex" — Simple lexical analysis

      * shlex Objects

      * Parsing Rules

      * Improved Compatibility with Shells

  * Graphical User Interfaces with Tk

    * "tkinter" — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

      * Tkinter Modules

      * Tkinter Life Preserver

        * How To Use This Section

        * A Simple Hello World Program

      * A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk

      * Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter

      * How Tk and Tkinter are Related

      * Handy Reference

        * Setting Options

        * The Packer

        * Packer Options

        * Coupling Widget Variables

        * The Window Manager

        * Tk Option Data Types

        * Bindings and Events

        * The index Parameter

        * Images

      * File Handlers

    * "tkinter.ttk" — Tk themed widgets

      * Using Ttk

      * Ttk Widgets

      * Widget

        * Standard Options

        * Scrollable Widget Options

        * Label Options

        * Compatibility Options

        * Widget States

        * ttk.Widget

      * Combobox

        * Options

        * Virtual events

        * ttk.Combobox

      * Notebook

        * Options

        * Tab Options

        * Tab Identifiers

        * Virtual Events

        * ttk.Notebook

      * Progressbar

        * Options

        * ttk.Progressbar

      * Separator

        * Options

      * Sizegrip

        * Platform-specific notes

        * Bugs

      * Treeview

        * Options

        * Item Options

        * Tag Options

        * Column Identifiers

        * Virtual Events

        * ttk.Treeview

      * Ttk Styling

        * Layouts

    * "tkinter.tix" — Extension widgets for Tk

      * Using Tix

      * Tix Widgets

        * Basic Widgets

        * File Selectors

        * Hierarchical ListBox

        * Tabular ListBox

        * Manager Widgets

        * Image Types

        * Miscellaneous Widgets

        * Form Geometry Manager

      * Tix Commands

    * "tkinter.scrolledtext" — Scrolled Text Widget

    * IDLE

      * Menus

        * File menu (Shell and Editor)

        * Edit menu (Shell and Editor)

        * Format menu (Editor window only)

        * Run menu (Editor window only)

        * Shell menu (Shell window only)

        * Debug menu (Shell window only)

        * Options menu (Shell and Editor)

        * Window menu (Shell and Editor)

        * Help menu (Shell and Editor)

        * Context Menus

      * Editing and navigation

        * Automatic indentation

        * Completions

        * Calltips

        * Python Shell window

        * Text colors

      * Startup and code execution

        * Command line usage

        * Startup failure

        * IDLE-console differences

        * Developing tkinter applications

        * Running without a subprocess

      * Help and preferences

        * Additional help sources

        * Setting preferences

        * Extensions

    * Other Graphical User Interface Packages

  * Development Tools

    * "typing" — Support for type hints

      * Type aliases

      * NewType

      * Callable

      * Generics

      * User-defined generic types

      * The "Any" type

      * Classes, functions, and decorators

    * "pydoc" — Documentation generator and online help system

    * "doctest" — Test interactive Python examples

      * Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings

      * Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File

      * How It Works

        * Which Docstrings Are Examined?

        * How are Docstring Examples Recognized?

        * What’s the Execution Context?

        * What About Exceptions?

        * Option Flags

        * Directives

        * Warnings

      * Basic API

      * Unittest API

      * Advanced API

        * DocTest Objects

        * Example Objects

        * DocTestFinder objects

        * DocTestParser objects

        * DocTestRunner objects

        * OutputChecker objects

      * Debugging

      * Soapbox

    * "unittest" — Unit testing framework

      * Basic example

      * Command-Line Interface

        * Command-line options

      * Test Discovery

      * Organizing test code

      * Re-using old test code

      * Skipping tests and expected failures

      * Distinguishing test iterations using subtests

      * Classes and functions

        * Test cases

          * Deprecated aliases

        * Grouping tests

        * Loading and running tests

          * load_tests Protocol

      * Class and Module Fixtures

        * setUpClass and tearDownClass

        * setUpModule and tearDownModule

      * Signal Handling

    * "unittest.mock" — mock object library

      * Quick Guide

      * The Mock Class

        * Calling

        * Deleting Attributes

        * Mock names and the name attribute

        * Attaching Mocks as Attributes

      * The patchers

        * patch

        * patch.object

        * patch.dict

        * patch.multiple

        * patch methods: start and stop

        * patch builtins

        * TEST_PREFIX

        * Nesting Patch Decorators

        * Where to patch

        * Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects

      * MagicMock and magic method support

        * Mocking Magic Methods

        * Magic Mock

      * Helpers

        * sentinel

        * DEFAULT

        * call

        * create_autospec

        * ANY

        * FILTER_DIR

        * mock_open

        * Autospeccing

    * "unittest.mock" — getting started

      * Using Mock

        * Mock Patching Methods

        * Mock for Method Calls on an Object

        * Mocking Classes

        * Naming your mocks

        * Tracking all Calls

        * Setting Return Values and Attributes

        * Raising exceptions with mocks

        * Side effect functions and iterables

        * Creating a Mock from an Existing Object

      * Patch Decorators

      * Further Examples

        * Mocking chained calls

        * Partial mocking

        * Mocking a Generator Method

        * Applying the same patch to every test method

        * Mocking Unbound Methods

        * Checking multiple calls with mock

        * Coping with mutable arguments

        * Nesting Patches

        * Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock

        * Mock subclasses and their attributes

        * Mocking imports with patch.dict

        * Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions

        * More complex argument matching

    * 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

      * Using 2to3

      * Fixers

      * "lib2to3" - 2to3’s library

    * "test" — Regression tests package for Python

      * Writing Unit Tests for the "test" package

      * Running tests using the command-line interface

    * "test.support" — Utilities for the Python test suite

  * Debugging and Profiling

    * "bdb" — Debugger framework

    * "faulthandler" — Dump the Python traceback

      * Dumping the traceback

      * Fault handler state

      * Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout

      * Dumping the traceback on a user signal

      * Issue with file descriptors

      * Example

    * "pdb" — The Python Debugger

      * Debugger Commands

    * The Python Profilers

      * Introduction to the profilers

      * Instant User’s Manual

      * "profile" and "cProfile" Module Reference

      * The "Stats" Class

      * What Is Deterministic Profiling?

      * Limitations

      * Calibration

      * Using a custom timer

    * "timeit" — Measure execution time of small code snippets

      * Basic Examples

      * Python Interface

      * Command-Line Interface

      * Examples

    * "trace" — Trace or track Python statement execution

      * Command-Line Usage

        * Main options

        * Modifiers

        * Filters

      * Programmatic Interface

    * "tracemalloc" — Trace memory allocations

      * Examples

        * Display the top 10

        * Compute differences

        * Get the traceback of a memory block

        * Pretty top

      * API

        * Functions

        * DomainFilter

        * Filter

        * Frame

        * Snapshot

        * Statistic

        * StatisticDiff

        * Trace

        * Traceback

  * Software Packaging and Distribution

    * "distutils" — Building and installing Python modules

    * "ensurepip" — Bootstrapping the "pip" installer

      * Command line interface

      * Module API

    * "venv" — Creation of virtual environments

      * Creating virtual environments

      * API

      * An example of extending "EnvBuilder"

    * "zipapp" — Manage executable python zip archives

      * Basic Example

      * Command-Line Interface

      * Python API

      * Examples

      * The Python Zip Application Archive Format

  * Python Runtime Services

    * "sys" — System-specific parameters and functions

    * "sysconfig" — Provide access to Python’s configuration
      information

      * Configuration variables

      * Installation paths

      * Other functions

      * Using "sysconfig" as a script

    * "builtins" — Built-in objects

    * "__main__" — Top-level script environment

    * "warnings" — Warning control

      * Warning Categories

      * The Warnings Filter

        * Default Warning Filters

      * Temporarily Suppressing Warnings

      * Testing Warnings

      * Updating Code For New Versions of Python

      * Available Functions

      * Available Context Managers

    * "contextlib" — Utilities for "with"-statement contexts

      * Utilities

      * Examples and Recipes

        * Supporting a variable number of context managers

        * Simplifying support for single optional context managers

        * Catching exceptions from "__enter__" methods

        * Cleaning up in an "__enter__" implementation

        * Replacing any use of "try-finally" and flag variables

        * Using a context manager as a function decorator

      * Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers

        * Reentrant context managers

        * Reusable context managers

    * "abc" — Abstract Base Classes

    * "atexit" — Exit handlers

      * "atexit" Example

    * "traceback" — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

      * "TracebackException" Objects

      * "StackSummary" Objects

      * "FrameSummary" Objects

      * Traceback Examples

    * "__future__" — Future statement definitions

    * "gc" — Garbage Collector interface

    * "inspect" — Inspect live objects

      * Types and members

      * Retrieving source code

      * Introspecting callables with the Signature object

      * Classes and functions

      * The interpreter stack

      * Fetching attributes statically

      * Current State of Generators and Coroutines

      * Code Objects Bit Flags

      * Command Line Interface

    * "site" — Site-specific configuration hook

      * Readline configuration

      * Module contents

    * "fpectl" — Floating point exception control

      * Example

      * Limitations and other considerations

  * Custom Python Interpreters

    * "code" — Interpreter base classes

      * Interactive Interpreter Objects

      * Interactive Console Objects

    * "codeop" — Compile Python code

  * Importing Modules

    * "zipimport" — Import modules from Zip archives

      * zipimporter Objects

      * Examples

    * "pkgutil" — Package extension utility

    * "modulefinder" — Find modules used by a script

      * Example usage of "ModuleFinder"

    * "runpy" — Locating and executing Python modules

    * "importlib" — The implementation of "import"

      * Introduction

      * Functions

      * "importlib.abc" – Abstract base classes related to import

      * "importlib.machinery" – Importers and path hooks

      * "importlib.util" – Utility code for importers

      * Examples

        * Importing programmatically

        * Checking if a module can be imported

        * Importing a source file directly

        * Setting up an importer

        * Approximating "importlib.import_module()"

  * Python Language Services

    * "parser" — Access Python parse trees

      * Creating ST Objects

      * Converting ST Objects

      * Queries on ST Objects

      * Exceptions and Error Handling

      * ST Objects

      * Example: Emulation of "compile()"

    * "ast" — Abstract Syntax Trees

      * Node classes

      * Abstract Grammar

      * "ast" Helpers

    * "symtable" — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

      * Generating Symbol Tables

      * Examining Symbol Tables

    * "symbol" — Constants used with Python parse trees

    * "token" — Constants used with Python parse trees

    * "keyword" — Testing for Python keywords

    * "tokenize" — Tokenizer for Python source

      * Tokenizing Input

      * Command-Line Usage

      * Examples

    * "tabnanny" — Detection of ambiguous indentation

    * "pyclbr" — Python class browser support

      * Class Objects

      * Function Objects

    * "py_compile" — Compile Python source files

    * "compileall" — Byte-compile Python libraries

      * Command-line use

      * Public functions

    * "dis" — Disassembler for Python bytecode

      * Bytecode analysis

      * Analysis functions

      * Python Bytecode Instructions

      * Opcode collections

    * "pickletools" — Tools for pickle developers

      * Command line usage

        * Command line options

      * Programmatic Interface

  * Miscellaneous Services

    * "formatter" — Generic output formatting

      * The Formatter Interface

      * Formatter Implementations

      * The Writer Interface

      * Writer Implementations

  * MS Windows Specific Services

    * "msilib" — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

      * Database Objects

      * View Objects

      * Summary Information Objects

      * Record Objects

      * Errors

      * CAB Objects

      * Directory Objects

      * Features

      * GUI classes

      * Precomputed tables

    * "msvcrt" — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

      * File Operations

      * Console I/O

      * Other Functions

    * "winreg" — Windows registry access

      * Functions

      * Constants

        * HKEY_* Constants

        * Access Rights

          * 64-bit Specific

        * Value Types

      * Registry Handle Objects

    * "winsound" — Sound-playing interface for Windows

  * Unix Specific Services

    * "posix" — The most common POSIX system calls

      * Large File Support

      * Notable Module Contents

    * "pwd" — The password database

    * "spwd" — The shadow password database

    * "grp" — The group database

    * "crypt" — Function to check Unix passwords

      * Hashing Methods

      * Module Attributes

      * Module Functions

      * Examples

    * "termios" — POSIX style tty control

      * Example

    * "tty" — Terminal control functions

    * "pty" — Pseudo-terminal utilities

      * Example

    * "fcntl" — The "fcntl" and "ioctl" system calls

    * "pipes" — Interface to shell pipelines

      * Template Objects

    * "resource" — Resource usage information

      * Resource Limits

      * Resource Usage

    * "nis" — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)

    * "syslog" — Unix syslog library routines

      * Examples

        * Simple example

  * Superseded Modules

    * "optparse" — Parser for command line options

      * Background

        * Terminology

        * What are options for?

        * What are positional arguments for?

      * Tutorial

        * Understanding option actions

        * The store action

        * Handling boolean (flag) options

        * Other actions

        * Default values

        * Generating help

          * Grouping Options

        * Printing a version string

        * How "optparse" handles errors

        * Putting it all together

      * Reference Guide

        * Creating the parser

        * Populating the parser

        * Defining options

        * Option attributes

        * Standard option actions

        * Standard option types

        * Parsing arguments

        * Querying and manipulating your option parser

        * Conflicts between options

        * Cleanup

        * Other methods

      * Option Callbacks

        * Defining a callback option

        * How callbacks are called

        * Raising errors in a callback

        * Callback example 1: trivial callback

        * Callback example 2: check option order

        * Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)

        * Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition

        * Callback example 5: fixed arguments

        * Callback example 6: variable arguments

      * Extending "optparse"

        * Adding new types

        * Adding new actions

    * "imp" — Access the "import" internals

      * Examples

  * Undocumented Modules

    * Platform specific modules

* Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter

  * Recommended third party tools

  * Creating extensions without third party tools

    * Extending Python with C or C++

      * A Simple Example

      * Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions

      * Back to the Example

      * The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function

      * Compilation and Linkage

      * Calling Python Functions from C

      * Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions

      * Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions

      * Building Arbitrary Values

      * Reference Counts

        * Reference Counting in Python

        * Ownership Rules

        * Thin Ice

        * NULL Pointers

      * Writing Extensions in C++

      * Providing a C API for an Extension Module

    * Defining New Types

      * The Basics

        * Adding data and methods to the Basic example

        * Providing finer control over data attributes

        * Supporting cyclic garbage collection

        * Subclassing other types

      * Type Methods

        * Finalization and De-allocation

        * Object Presentation

        * Attribute Management

          * Generic Attribute Management

          * Type-specific Attribute Management

        * Object Comparison

        * Abstract Protocol Support

        * Weak Reference Support

        * More Suggestions

    * Building C and C++ Extensions

      * Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils

      * Distributing your extension modules

    * Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows

      * A Cookbook Approach

      * Differences Between Unix and Windows

      * Using DLLs in Practice

  * Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application

    * Embedding Python in Another Application

      * Very High Level Embedding

      * Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview

      * Pure Embedding

      * Extending Embedded Python

      * Embedding Python in C++

      * Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems

* Python/C API Reference Manual

  * Introduction

    * Include Files

    * Objects, Types and Reference Counts

      * Reference Counts

        * Reference Count Details

      * Types

    * Exceptions

    * Embedding Python

    * Debugging Builds

  * Stable Application Binary Interface

  * The Very High Level Layer

  * Reference Counting

  * Exception Handling

    * Printing and clearing

    * Raising exceptions

    * Issuing warnings

    * Querying the error indicator

    * Signal Handling

    * Exception Classes

    * Exception Objects

    * Unicode Exception Objects

    * Recursion Control

    * Standard Exceptions

    * Standard Warning Categories

  * Utilities

    * Operating System Utilities

    * System Functions

    * Process Control

    * Importing Modules

    * Data marshalling support

    * Parsing arguments and building values

      * Parsing arguments

        * Strings and buffers

        * Numbers

        * Other objects

        * API Functions

      * Building values

    * String conversion and formatting

    * Reflection

    * Codec registry and support functions

      * Codec lookup API

      * Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers

  * Abstract Objects Layer

    * Object Protocol

    * Number Protocol

    * Sequence Protocol

    * Mapping Protocol

    * Iterator Protocol

    * Buffer Protocol

      * Buffer structure

      * Buffer request types

        * request-independent fields

        * readonly, format

        * shape, strides, suboffsets

        * contiguity requests

        * compound requests

      * Complex arrays

        * NumPy-style: shape and strides

        * PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets

      * Buffer-related functions

    * Old Buffer Protocol

  * Concrete Objects Layer

    * Fundamental Objects

      * Type Objects

      * The "None" Object

    * Numeric Objects

      * Integer Objects

      * Boolean Objects

      * Floating Point Objects

      * Complex Number Objects

        * Complex Numbers as C Structures

        * Complex Numbers as Python Objects

    * Sequence Objects

      * Bytes Objects

      * Byte Array Objects

        * Type check macros

        * Direct API functions

        * Macros

      * Unicode Objects and Codecs

        * Unicode Objects

          * Unicode Type

          * Unicode Character Properties

          * Creating and accessing Unicode strings

          * Deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs

          * Locale Encoding

          * File System Encoding

          * wchar_t Support

        * Built-in Codecs

          * Generic Codecs

          * UTF-8 Codecs

          * UTF-32 Codecs

          * UTF-16 Codecs

          * UTF-7 Codecs

          * Unicode-Escape Codecs

          * Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs

          * Latin-1 Codecs

          * ASCII Codecs

          * Character Map Codecs

          * MBCS codecs for Windows

          * Methods & Slots

        * Methods and Slot Functions

      * Tuple Objects

      * Struct Sequence Objects

      * List Objects

    * Container Objects

      * Dictionary Objects

      * Set Objects

    * Function Objects

      * Function Objects

      * Instance Method Objects

      * Method Objects

      * Cell Objects

      * Code Objects

    * Other Objects

      * File Objects

      * Module Objects

        * Initializing C modules

          * Single-phase initialization

          * Multi-phase initialization

          * Low-level module creation functions

          * Support functions

        * Module lookup

      * Iterator Objects

      * Descriptor Objects

      * Slice Objects

      * Ellipsis Object

      * MemoryView objects

      * Weak Reference Objects

      * Capsules

      * Generator Objects

      * Coroutine Objects

      * DateTime Objects

  * Initialization, Finalization, and Threads

    * Initializing and finalizing the interpreter

    * Process-wide parameters

    * Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

      * Releasing the GIL from extension code

      * Non-Python created threads

      * High-level API

      * Low-level API

    * Sub-interpreter support

      * Bugs and caveats

    * Asynchronous Notifications

    * Profiling and Tracing

    * Advanced Debugger Support

  * Memory Management

    * Overview

    * Raw Memory Interface

    * Memory Interface

    * Object allocators

    * Customize Memory Allocators

    * The pymalloc allocator

      * Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator

    * Examples

  * Object Implementation Support

    * Allocating Objects on the Heap

    * Common Object Structures

    * Type Objects

    * Number Object Structures

    * Mapping Object Structures

    * Sequence Object Structures

    * Buffer Object Structures

    * Async Object Structures

    * Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

  * API and ABI Versioning

* Distributing Python Modules

  * Key terms

  * Open source licensing and collaboration

  * Installing the tools

  * Reading the guide

  * How do I…?

    * … choose a name for my project?

    * … create and distribute binary extensions?

* Installing Python Modules

  * Key terms

  * Basic usage

  * How do I …?

    * … install "pip" in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?

    * … install packages just for the current user?

    * … install scientific Python packages?

    * … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?

  * Common installation issues

    * Installing into the system Python on Linux

    * Pip not installed

    * Installing binary extensions

* Python HOWTOs

  * Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3

    * The Short Explanation

    * Details

      * Drop support for Python 2.6 and older

      * Make sure you specify the proper version support in your
        "setup.py" file

      * Have good test coverage

      * Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3

      * Update your code

        * Division

        * Text versus binary data

        * Use feature detection instead of version detection

      * Prevent compatibility regressions

      * Check which dependencies block your transition

      * Update your "setup.py" file to denote Python 3 compatibility

      * Use continuous integration to stay compatible

      * Consider using optional static type checking

  * Porting Extension Modules to Python 3

    * Conditional compilation

    * Changes to Object APIs

      * str/unicode Unification

      * long/int Unification

    * Module initialization and state

    * CObject replaced with Capsule

    * Other options

  * Curses Programming with Python

    * What is curses?

      * The Python curses module

    * Starting and ending a curses application

    * Windows and Pads

    * Displaying Text

      * Attributes and Color

    * User Input

    * For More Information

  * Descriptor HowTo Guide

    * Abstract

    * Definition and Introduction

    * Descriptor Protocol

    * Invoking Descriptors

    * Descriptor Example

    * Properties

    * Functions and Methods

    * Static Methods and Class Methods

  * Functional Programming HOWTO

    * Introduction

      * Formal provability

      * Modularity

      * Ease of debugging and testing

      * Composability

    * Iterators

      * Data Types That Support Iterators

    * Generator expressions and list comprehensions

    * Generators

      * Passing values into a generator

    * Built-in functions

    * The itertools module

      * Creating new iterators

      * Calling functions on elements

      * Selecting elements

      * Combinatoric functions

      * Grouping elements

    * The functools module

      * The operator module

    * Small functions and the lambda expression

    * Revision History and Acknowledgements

    * References

      * General

      * Python-specific

      * Python documentation

  * Logging HOWTO

    * Basic Logging Tutorial

      * When to use logging

      * A simple example

      * Logging to a file

      * Logging from multiple modules

      * Logging variable data

      * Changing the format of displayed messages

      * Displaying the date/time in messages

      * Next Steps

    * Advanced Logging Tutorial

      * Logging Flow

      * Loggers

      * Handlers

      * Formatters

      * Configuring Logging

      * What happens if no configuration is provided

      * Configuring Logging for a Library

    * Logging Levels

      * Custom Levels

    * Useful Handlers

    * Exceptions raised during logging

    * Using arbitrary objects as messages

    * Optimization

  * Logging Cookbook

    * Using logging in multiple modules

    * Logging from multiple threads

    * Multiple handlers and formatters

    * Logging to multiple destinations

    * Configuration server example

    * Dealing with handlers that block

    * Sending and receiving logging events across a network

    * Adding contextual information to your logging output

      * Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

        * Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual
          information

      * Using Filters to impart contextual information

    * Logging to a single file from multiple processes

    * Using file rotation

    * Use of alternative formatting styles

    * Customizing "LogRecord"

    * Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example

    * Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example

    * An example dictionary-based configuration

    * Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing

    * A more elaborate multiprocessing example

    * Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler

    * Implementing structured logging

    * Customizing handlers with "dictConfig()"

    * Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

      * Using LogRecord factories

      * Using custom message objects

    * Configuring filters with "dictConfig()"

    * Customized exception formatting

    * Speaking logging messages

    * Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally

    * Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration

    * Using a context manager for selective logging

  * Regular Expression HOWTO

    * Introduction

    * Simple Patterns

      * Matching Characters

      * Repeating Things

    * Using Regular Expressions

      * Compiling Regular Expressions

      * The Backslash Plague

      * Performing Matches

      * Module-Level Functions

      * Compilation Flags

    * More Pattern Power

      * More Metacharacters

      * Grouping

      * Non-capturing and Named Groups

      * Lookahead Assertions

    * Modifying Strings

      * Splitting Strings

      * Search and Replace

    * Common Problems

      * Use String Methods

      * match() versus search()

      * Greedy versus Non-Greedy

      * Using re.VERBOSE

    * Feedback

  * Socket Programming HOWTO

    * Sockets

      * History

    * Creating a Socket

      * IPC

    * Using a Socket

      * Binary Data

    * Disconnecting

      * When Sockets Die

    * Non-blocking Sockets

  * Sorting HOW TO

    * Sorting Basics

    * Key Functions

    * Operator Module Functions

    * Ascending and Descending

    * Sort Stability and Complex Sorts

    * The Old Way Using Decorate-Sort-Undecorate

    * The Old Way Using the *cmp* Parameter

    * Odd and Ends

  * Unicode HOWTO

    * Introduction to Unicode

      * History of Character Codes

      * Definitions

      * Encodings

      * References

    * Python’s Unicode Support

      * The String Type

      * Converting to Bytes

      * Unicode Literals in Python Source Code

      * Unicode Properties

      * Unicode Regular Expressions

      * References

    * Reading and Writing Unicode Data

      * Unicode filenames

      * Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

        * Converting Between File Encodings

        * Files in an Unknown Encoding

      * References

    * Acknowledgements

  * HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

    * Introduction

    * Fetching URLs

      * Data

      * Headers

    * Handling Exceptions

      * URLError

      * HTTPError

        * Error Codes

      * Wrapping it Up

        * Number 1

        * Number 2

    * info and geturl

    * Openers and Handlers

    * Basic Authentication

    * Proxies

    * Sockets and Layers

    * Footnotes

  * Argparse Tutorial

    * Concepts

    * The basics

    * Introducing Positional arguments

    * Introducing Optional arguments

      * Short options

    * Combining Positional and Optional arguments

    * Getting a little more advanced

      * Conflicting options

    * Conclusion

  * An introduction to the ipaddress module

    * Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

      * A Note on IP Versions

      * IP Host Addresses

      * Defining Networks

      * Host Interfaces

    * Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects

    * Networks as lists of Addresses

    * Comparisons

    * Using IP Addresses with other modules

    * Getting more detail when instance creation fails

  * Argument Clinic How-To

    * The Goals Of Argument Clinic

    * Basic Concepts And Usage

    * Converting Your First Function

    * Advanced Topics

      * Symbolic default values

      * Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument
        Clinic

      * Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple

      * Optional Groups

      * Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of “legacy
        converters”

      * Py_buffer

      * Advanced converters

      * Parameter default values

      * The "NULL" default value

      * Expressions specified as default values

      * Using a return converter

      * Cloning existing functions

      * Calling Python code

      * Using a “self converter”

      * Writing a custom converter

      * Writing a custom return converter

      * METH_O and METH_NOARGS

      * tp_new and tp_init functions

      * Changing and redirecting Clinic’s output

      * The #ifdef trick

      * Using Argument Clinic in Python files

  * Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

    * Enabling the static markers

    * Static DTrace probes

    * Static SystemTap markers

    * Available static markers

    * SystemTap Tapsets

    * Examples

* Python Frequently Asked Questions

  * General Python FAQ

    * General Information

    * Python in the real world

  * Programming FAQ

    * General Questions

    * Core Language

    * Numbers and strings

    * Performance

    * Sequences (Tuples/Lists)

    * Dictionaries

    * Objects

    * Modules

  * Design and History FAQ

    * Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?

    * Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic
      operations?

    * Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?

    * Why are Python strings immutable?

    * Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and
      calls?

    * Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?

    * Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g.
      list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?

    * Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple
      method?

    * How fast are exceptions?

    * Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?

    * Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of
      relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?

    * Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?

    * Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other
      language?

    * How does Python manage memory?

    * Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection
      scheme?

    * Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?

    * Why are there separate tuple and list data types?

    * How are lists implemented?

    * How are dictionaries implemented?

    * Why must dictionary keys be immutable?

    * Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?

    * How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?

    * Why is there no goto?

    * Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?

    * Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute
      assignments?

    * Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?

    * Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?

  * Library and Extension FAQ

    * General Library Questions

    * Common tasks

    * Threads

    * Input and Output

    * Network/Internet Programming

    * Databases

    * Mathematics and Numerics

  * Extending/Embedding FAQ

    * Can I create my own functions in C?

    * Can I create my own functions in C++?

    * Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?

    * How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?

    * How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?

    * How do I extract C values from a Python object?

    * How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary
      length?

    * How do I call an object’s method from C?

    * How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that
      prints to stdout/stderr)?

    * How do I access a module written in Python from C?

    * How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?

    * I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?

    * How do I debug an extension?

    * I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some
      files are missing. Why?

    * How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?

    * How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or
      __pure_virtual?

    * Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in
      C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?

  * Python on Windows FAQ

    * How do I run a Python program under Windows?

    * How do I make Python scripts executable?

    * Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?

    * How do I make an executable from a Python script?

    * Is a "*.pyd" file the same as a DLL?

    * How can I embed Python into a Windows application?

    * How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python
      source?

    * How do I check for a keypress without blocking?

    * How do I emulate os.kill() in Windows?

    * How do I extract the downloaded documentation on Windows?

  * Graphic User Interface FAQ

    * General GUI Questions

    * What platform-independent GUI toolkits exist for Python?

    * What platform-specific GUI toolkits exist for Python?

    * Tkinter questions

  * “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ

    * What is Python?

    * Why is Python installed on my machine?

    * Can I delete Python?

* Glossary

* About these documents

  * Contributors to the Python Documentation

* Dealing with Bugs

  * Documentation bugs

  * Using the Python issue tracker

  * Getting started contributing to Python yourself

* Copyright

* History and License

  * History of the software

  * Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python

    * PSF LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 3.6.4rc1

    * BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0

    * CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1

    * CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2

  * Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software

    * Mersenne Twister

    * Sockets

    * Floating point exception control

    * Asynchronous socket services

    * Cookie management

    * Execution tracing

    * UUencode and UUdecode functions

    * XML Remote Procedure Calls

    * test_epoll

    * Select kqueue

    * SipHash24

    * strtod and dtoa

    * OpenSSL

    * expat

    * libffi

    * zlib

    * cfuhash

    * libmpdec
